TEXT-BOOK 


OF 


MEAT  HYGIENE 


WITH  SPECIAL  CONSIDERATION  OF  ANTEMORTEM 
AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION  OF  FOOD- 
PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


BY 

RICHAKD  EDELMANN,  PH.D. 

MEDICAL  COUNSELLOR;  ROYAL  STATE  VETERINARIAN  OF  SAXONY;  PROFESSOR  AT  THE 
ROYAL  VETERINARY  HIGH  SCHOOL  IN  DRESDEN 


AUTHORIZED    TRANSLATION     REVISED    FOR    AMERICA 


BY 

JOHN  R.  MOHLER,  A.M.,  V.M.D. 

CHIEF   OF   PATHOLOGICAL   DIVISION,    UNITED   STATES   BUREAU   OF   ANIMAL    INDUSTRY 

AND 

ADOLPH  EICHHORN,  D.V.S. 

SENIOR   BACTERIOLOGIST,    PATHOLOGICAL   DIVISION,    UNITED    STATES   BUREAU    OF   ANIMAL   INDUSTRY 


TKHttb  152  Ullustrattons  ano  5  ColoreD  HMates 


LEA    &    FEBIGEE 

PHILADELPHIA    AND    NEW    YORK 
1911 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1911,  by 

LEA   &   FEBIGER 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress.     All  rights  reserved. 


PEEFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 


OF  the  various  classes  of  foods,  meat  is  one  of  the  most  important, 
and  it  is  certainly  the  one  most  subject  to  conditions  rendering  it 
unwholesome  or  even  dangerous.  The  necessity  of  controlling  the 
sale  of  meat  and  insuring  its  purity  is  therefore  recognized  by  all 
enlightened  governments.  Second  to  none  in  this  regard,  the  United 
States  possesses  in  the  Act  of  1906  a  comprehensive  and  satisfactory 
law,  assuring  a  wholesome  and  hygienic  meat  supply  to  the  people. 
For  its  efficient  and  continuous  enforcement  a  permanent  yearly 
appropriation  of  three  million  dollars  is  made,  a  sum  sufficient  to  cover 
the  country  with  a  corps  of  thoroughly  trained  inspectors,  armed  with 
ample  powers. 

The  enforcement  of  this  law  created  a  widespread  demand  for  a 
concise,  comprehensive,  and  authoritative  text-book  and  practical 
guide  on  meat  inspection.  At  this  juncture  attention  was  fortunately 
called  to  Edelmann's  work  by  the  appearance  of  the  second  edition  in 
Germany.  Its  acceptance  there  was  sufficient  evidence  of  its  funda- 
mental thoroughness.  As  the  subject  is  necessarily  identical  in  all 
countries,  differing  only  as  to  the  laws  and  regulations,  it  was  felt  to  be 
a  duty  to  translate  a  work  of  such  paramount  importance  and  value 
and  to  adapt  it  to  American  requirements.  The  distinguished  author 
cordially  gave  his  consent.  In  the  first  American  edition  such  changes 
were  made  as  were  necessary  to  cover  all  the  information  desirable  in 
this  country.  Accordingly,  the  regulations  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  were  inserted,  and  in  the  sections  relating  to  the  judgment 
of  carcasses  special  references  were  made  to  the  particular  regulations 
applying  to  various  conditions.  The  practical  needs  of  the  inspector 
of  meats  were  always  borne  in  mind  by  the  translators. 

The  demand  for  a  second  American  edition  has  proved  that  this 
work  is  as  highly  valued  in  this  country  as  in  Germany.  It  has  met 
with  a  most  appreciative  reception  by  the  Veterinary  and  Medical 
professions,  and  a  large  number  of  veterinary  colleges  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  have  recommended  it  to  their  students.  The 

254532 


iv  PREFACE  TO  SECOND  EDITION 

subject  is  one  in  which  every  veterinarian  should  be  thoroughly  qualified. 
In  this  new  edition  the  work  has  been  carefully  revised  and  brought  to 
date,  and  certain  sections  have  been  amplified.  Anything  obsolete 
has  been  omitted,  and  it  may  be  reasonably  anticipated  that  the  work 
will  continue  to  serve  as  a  convenient  and  authoritative  guide  to 
inspectors  as  well  as  an  admirable  text-book  and  work  of  reference  for 
students  and  veterinarians. 

JOHN  R.  MOHLER, 

ADOLPH  EICHHORN. 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C.,  1911. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION 17 

CHAPTER  I 

ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 19 

CHAPTER  II 

MORPHOLOGY  AND  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  TISSUES  AND  ORGANS  OF 

FOOD  ANIMALS 52 

CHAPTER  III 
THE  PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT       ....       86 

CHAPTER  IV 

REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  DEPART- 
MENT OF  AGRICULTURE    . 109 

CHAPTER  V 

ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF  THE  INSPECTION  FORCE   .      .      143 

CHAPTER  VI 

DECISIONS  OF  THE  VETERINARY  INSPECTORS  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  THE  CONDEMNED 

MEAT •     . 169 

CHAPTER  VII 

ABNORMAL  CONDITIONS  AND  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS    .      .      .      192 

CHAPTER  VIII 
INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 264 

CHAPTER  IX 

POSTMORTEM  CHANGES  OF  MEAT      .  323 


vi  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  X 

EXAMINATION    AND    JUDGMENT    OF    PREPARED    AND    PRESERVED    MEATS, 

CHICKENS,  GAME,  FISH,  AMPHIBIA,  AND  CRUSTACEANS 333 


CHAPTER  XI 
MEAT  POISONINGS 351 

CHAPTER  XII 

HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE ...     359 

CHAPTER  XIII 

ABATTOIRS  AND  STOCKYARDS  .     369 


MEAT  HYGIENE 


INTRODUCTION 

REGULATION  of  the  diet  or  hygiene  has  for  its  purpose  the  retaining 
and  strengthening  of  the  health  of  the  human  or  animal  organism,  by 
increasing  its  internal  resistance,  and  by  preventing  any  noxious 
effects.  In  doing  this  it  is  necessary,  in  the  first  place,  to  consider 
the  nourishment  of  the  organism.  Inasmuch  as  meat  constitutes  the 
principal  foodstuff  for  the  human  body,  the  regulation  of  the  diet  of 
man  must  also  extend  to  meat  products.  And  since  recently  there  has 
been  considerable  attention  paid  to  the  latter  from  a  hygienic  stand- 
point, justification  is  had  for  the  use  of  the  words  "meat  hygiene," 
by  which  is  understood  that  part  of  the  regimen  which  concerns  the 
procurement  of  wholesome  meat  foods  for  man,  their  value  to  public 
health,  as  well,  as  the  dangers  which  threaten  the  consumers  of  diseased 
or  unsound  meats. 

For  the  prevention  of  these  dangers  there  should  be,  in  the  first 
place,  an  expert  supervision  of  the  meat-food  products  of  man.  Every- 
thing which  constitutes  such  a  supervision  may  be  comprised  in  the 
term  of  meat  inspection  or  meat  examination.  By  this  should  be 
understood  the  examination  of  meat  and  the  products  made  of  the 
same,  relative  to  their  proper  origin  and  desirability  as  food  for  man. 

Inasmuch  as  these  food  substances  are  the  products  of  animals, 
the  examination  can  only  be  complete  when  it  extends  not  alone  to 
all  parts  of  the  slaughtered  animals,  but  also  to  the  food-producing 
animals  in  life.  Accordingly  it  is  more  correct  to  speak  of  the  examina- 
tion as  an  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection. 

When  in  the  sense  of  this  inspection  the  term  meat  is  mentioned 
it  should  not  be  applied  exclusively  to  the  striated  muscles  of  the  body 
and  the  tissues  in  connection  therewith  (fat,  connective  tissue,  nerves, 
blood,  lymph  glands,  bones,  and  cartilages),  but  rather  to  all  parts 
of  the  animal  which  are  suitable  for  human  consumption. 

And  while  the  objects  and  duties  of  meat  inspection  are  in  the  first 
place  the  prevention  of  the  dangers  which  threaten  human  health 
from  noxious  meat  products,  yet  at  the  same  time  a  well-organized 
meat  inspection  also  undertakes  the  task  of  protecting  the  meat  con- 
sumers in  an  economic  relation  from  frauds  and  deceptions,  by  causing 
the  meat  which  is  not  altogether  unobjectionable  regarding  its  origin 
and  consistence  to  be  sold  under  a  compulsory  declaration. 
2 


18  INTRODUCTION 

In  the  execution  of  these  main  objects,  meat  inspection  may  also 
render  important  services  in  veterinary  police  work  by  detecting  animal 
plagues,  and  also  by  extending  a  beneficial  influence  from  a  general 
hygienic  standpoint  to  animal  and  man,  by  the  complete  harmless 
disposition  of  all  products  of  diseases  and  their  specific  causes.  In 
relation  to  the  latter,  meat  inspection  should  not  be  underestimated 
in  its  value  and  importance  to  general  stock  raising.  It  not  only 
discloses  to  the  intelligent  owner  of  stock  obscure  diseases  of  food 
animals,  but  shows  to  him  also  the  means  and  ways  by  which  such 
diseases  may  be  eradicated  and  prevented. 

So  far  as  the  extension  of  jurisdiction  of  meat  inspection  is  con- 
cerned, it  reaches  all  the  food  animals  which  are  customarily  found 
in  the  respective  countries  (p.  19),  and  which  produce  the  principal 
mass  of  meat  food.  And  while,  in  the  question  of  inspection,  only 
those  food  animals  are  concerned  the  meat  of  which  is  to  be  utilized 
commercially,  yet  it  is  of  no  less  importance  to  the  public  interest 
that  those  animals  should  be  subject  to  inspection  which  are  slaughtered 
for  private  purposes.  The  reasons  for  this  absolute  generalization  of 
meat  inspection  for  all  animals  coming  for  slaughter  can  only  be  indi- 
cated at  this  time.  They  lay  above  all  in  the  importance  of  meat 
inspection  to  general  hygiene,  which  cannot  be  ignored  even  though 
private  property  be  condemned. 

Furthermore,  it  is  not  feasible  to  control  the  possibility  that  meat 
of  animals  supposed  to  be  slaughtered  for  private  uses  might  not  serve 
exclusively  for  these  purposes,  but  might  be  brought,  in  spite  of  assur- 
ances, into  the  public  traffic.  There  also  belongs  to  a  thorough  meat 
inspection  the  control  of  meat  products  (prepared  meat)  which  are 
prepared  from  food  animals,  as  well  as  the  inspection  of  all  other  animals 
which  are  marketed  and  served  for  human  food,  such  as  game,  poultry, 
fish,  crustaceans,  mollusks,  reptiles,  and  amphibians. 


CHAPTER    I 

ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

MAN  takes  his  meat-food  diet  from  almost  all  classes  of  animal  life, 
and,  therefore,  the  bromatologic  fauna  extends  from  the  coelenterates 
to  the  vertebrates.  In  general,  animals  which  live  on  plant  food  or 
on  the  lower  animals  are  furnishing  the  civilized  nations  with  pala- 
table meat,  while  the  meat  of  animals  which  consume  higher  animals 
(fish,  amphibia,  reptiles,  birds)  is  less  adapted  for  human  food.  The 
principal  meat  foods  are  obtained  from  the  class  of  mammals,  and 
among  this  class  the  first  place  is  taken  by  herbivorous  and  certain 
omnivorous  animals,  while  those  mammals  which  are  solely  carniv- 
orous serve  only  rarely  for  human  food.  Next  to  mammals,  birds, 
and  then  fish  supply  most  of  the  meat  for  man.  Other  foods  which 
are  derived  from  the  other  classes  of  animal  life  play  only  the  part 
of  delicacies,  or  are  consumed  only  occasionally. 

FOOD    ANIMALS 

Although  the  animals  which  are  slaughtered,  and  all  those  which 
are  killed  through  the  abstraction  of  blood  may  be  designated  as  food 
animals,  yet  only  the  slaughterable  domesticated  mammals  are  popu- 
larly regarded  as  such,  while  domestic  poultry  which  serve  as  human 
food  are  in  general  not  considered  in  the  narrow  sense  under  the  con- 
ception of  food  animals. 

The  domesticated  mammals  which  are  slaughtered  are  divided  into 
large  stock,  hogs,  and  small  stock,  while  in  Austria  the  latter  two 
classes  are  classified  as  "stock  foT  sticking."  Depending  upon  the 
nutritive  condition,  they  may  be  distinguished  as  lean  stock  and  fat 
stock.  Besides  these  designations  there  is  also  the  pasture  stock,  which 
is  composed  of  lean  as  well  as  of  fattened  animals. 

To  "large  stock"  belong  cattle  and  horses,  also  the  ass  and  mule. 
Buffaloes  are  only  occasionally  slaughtered  in  Germany,  when  im- 
ported from  foreign  countries,  but  they  play  a  more  important  part 
as  food  animals  in  southern  and  southeast  Europe,  as  do  reindeer 
in  northern  countries. 

Cattle  are  slaughtered  as  male  animals  (bulls,  bullocks) ;  as  castrated 
males  (oxen,  steers);  and  as  female  animals  (cows,  heifers). 

The  designation  steer  has  not  the  same  meaning  everywhere.  While  in 
some  places  it  is  understood  that  steers  are  young  male  animals,  in  other  parts 
that  designation  applies  to  castrated,  not  full-grown,  male  cattle,  and  in  Saxony 


20'  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

the  word  steer  represents  only  a  conception  of  the  state  slaughter  tax  applied 
to  certain  animals.  For  this  tax  those  cattle  are  designated  as  steers  which 
have  not  yet  shed  the  outside  middle  and  the  corner  teeth. 

In  the  imperial  regulations  for  ante-  and  postmortem  inspection  the  follow- 
ing designations  are  made: 

"  Steers, "  cattle  of  the  male  sex  which  are  castrated  and  have  reached  two 
years  of  age. 

"  Bulls, "  cattle  of  the  male  sex  which  have  reached  the  age  of  two  years. 

"Cows, "  cattle  of  the  female  sex  which  have  already  calved. 

"Young  stock,"  cattle  after  reaching  the  age  of  three  months,  when  they 
are:  (a)  Females  and  have  not  yet  calved;  (6)  males,  or  castrated  males, 
which  have  not  yet  exceeded  the  age  of  two  years. 

"Calves,"  cattle  up  to  the  age  of  three  months,  either  males,  females,  or 
castrated  animals. 


In  horses  the  different  sexes  are  known  as  stallions  (male),  mares 
(female),  geldings  (castrated  male  horses);  young  horses  are  called 
foals,  or  fillies. 

Hogs,  which  furnish  a  large  proportion  of  the  meat  and  which  are 
of  the  greatest  importance  from  the  standpoint  of  general  mainte- 
nance, are  principally  slaughtered  as  castrated  males  (barrows;  also 
stags  when  they  are  castrated  after  being  used  for  breeding  purposes) 
and  female  animals.  Besides  these,  boars  (wild  boars)  and  cryptorchids, 
as  well  as  sucking  and  breeding  sows,  and  occasionally  very  young  pigs 
as  roasters  and  suckling  pigs,  are  also  slaughtered. 

The  term  "small  stock"  embraces  calves,  sheep,  and  goats.  Certain 
types  of  calves  are  distinguished  by  marked  development  of  the  muscles, 
especially  on  the  chest  and  legs.  Sheep  and  goats  when  young  are 
called  lambs  and  kids  respectively;  the  male  animals  are  designated 
as  bucks  and  rams;  when  castrated  they  are  known  as  wethers.  In 
the  language  of  the  butcher,  however,  the  meat  of  all  sheep,  without 
consideration  of  the  sex,  is  called  mutton  or  lamb. 

Of  the  other  domesticated  animals  the  following  may  also  be  slaught- 
ered and  consumed:  In  Germany  dogs  are  principally  slaughtered 
in  large-  cities  or  in  localities  densely  populated  with  the  laboring 
class,  and,  as  a  rule,  secretly  only  and  for  home  use.  The  govern- 
ment meat-inspection  laws  subject  dogs  to  compulsory  inspection. 
They  have  been  slaughtered  and  used  for  food  in  noteworthy  number, 
especially  in  Saxony.  Cats  are  also  occasionally  slaughtered,  and 
have  been  known  to  be  substituted  for  rabbits. 

Rabbits  are  slaughtered  in  Germany  mostly  for  household  use, 
but  in  France  and  England  they  constitute  a  considerable  commercial 
product.  According  to  Bentel,  the  daily  consumption  of  rabbits  in 
Paris  amounts  to  10,000,  and  in  London  to  75,000.  According  to 
Schlieger,  rabbits  to  the  value  of  80,000,000  to  90,000,000  francs  are 
annually  raised  in  France,  and  Paris  alone  annually  consumes  rabbits 
valued  at  5,000,000  to  6,000,000  francs.  In  France,  England,  Belgium, 
and  in  some  parts  of  Holland  rabbits  are  not  a  general  food  of  the 
people,  but  rabbit  meat  may  be  found  daily  on  the  tables  of  the  rich. 
According  to  Schlieger's  calculation,  a  breeding  farm  in  France  which 


FOOD  ANIMALS  21 

produces  600  rabbits  monthly,  weighing  3  kg.  each,  affords  an  annual 
clear  profit  of  $1250. 

In  relation  to  rapid  meat  production  the  rabbit  stands  first  among 
meat-producing  animals.  A  female  rabbit  may  be  pregnant  eight 
or  ten  times  annually,  giving  birth  to  a  litter  averaging  six  young, 
each  of  which  may  within  four  months  reach  a  weight  of  2.5  kg.  Such 
a  female  may  accordingly  produce  150  kg.  of  meat  inside  of  a  year. 

Traffic  in  Food  Animals. — The  need  of  food  animals  is  preferably 
supplied  through  home  stock  raising,  while  importation  from  foreign 
countries  (p.  28)  is  at  present  slight,  owing  to  the  prohibition  or  con- 
siderable restriction  of  sanitary  police  regulations. 

Food  animals  which  supply  the  demand  of  the  butchers  in  the  rural 
districts  and  the  small  cities  usually  originate  locally  in  the  neighbor- 
hood, at  least  if  there  is  sufficient  stock  raising  in  the  vicinity  to  satisfy 
the  demand.  In  larger  cities  and  industrial  centres  the  demand  for 
food  animals  cannot  be  supplied  from  the  surrounding  country,  and 
shipment  from  stock-raising  districts  becomes  a  necessity.  These 
shipments  seldom  occur  directly,  but,  as  a  rule,  are  made  from  stock- 
yards, which  are  the  collecting  centres  for  the  marketing  of  food  animals 
(see  Chapter  XII).  These  are  at  present  an  important  and  conspicuous 
factor  in  the  supply  of  large  cities  and  extensive  territories. 

Trading  in  food  animals  is  principally  carried  out  from  a  business 
standpoint,  which  even  applies  to  the  constant  small  tradings.  The 
purchase  of  a  food  animal  is  either  conducted  according  to  live  weight 
or  by  dressed  weight  or  off-hand  (so  much  for  each  animal). 

Each  deal  is  made  through  the  judgment  of  the  quality  of  the  indi- 
vidual food  animal.  For  this  purpose,  besides  the  general  inspection, 
the  buyer  preferably  palpates  or  grasps  certain  parts  of  the  body  which 
are  especially  considered  on  account  of  the  fat  deposits  at  these  points. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  applied  in  cattle  to  the  shoulder,  withers,  outside  surface  of 
the  false  ribs,  hind  border  and  inner  surface  of  the  last  rib,  haunch,  rump, 
flank,  base  of  the  tail,  scrotal  region  in  steers,  and  the  front  of  the  udder  in 
cows. 

In  sheep  the  buyer  examines  the  subcutaneous  development  of  fat,  especially 
on  the  back,  the  lumbar  region,  and  the  base  of  the  tail;  he  also  estimates  the 
weight  by  lifting  the  animal  from  the  ground,  and  by  the  age. 

Calves  are  judged  by  their  general  condition,  age,  development  of  meat 
on  the  back  and  leg,  also  by  lifting  the  animal  off  the  ground. 

In  hogs  the  chest  wall,  the  back,  especially  the  withers,  and  the  abdomen 
are  preferably  examined. 

Besides  the  nutritive  condition,  the  following  examinations  are 
generally  made:  General  conformation  of  the  food  animal,  size,  age, 
condition  of  health,  intestinal  contents,  skin,  hair,  etc.  From  these 
conditions  the  buyer  estimates  the  value  of  the  animal  for  slaughter, 
and  above  all  as  to  its  live  weight.  On  the  correct  estimate  of  the 
latter  in  connection  with  pertinent  judging  of  other  peculiarities  of  the 
animal  depends  entirely  the  principle  of  buying  off-hand  (by  the  head). 

Buying  by  live  weight  is  based  on  an  estimate  of  the  value  of  the 


22 


ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 


animal  by  weight  during  life  and  by  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
which  the  carcass  possesses  for  its  utilization  as  food.  Occasionally 
a  discount  is  allowed  in  such  trades  representing  part  of  the  waste 
from  the  intestinal  content.  This  is  most  frequently  the  case  in  the 
marketing  of  hogs,  when  a  discount  of  20  to  22  per  cent,  is  sometimes 
agreed  upon.  Naturally  the  price  per  kilo  of  the  live  weight  is  arranged 
accordingly. 

Rieck  established  that  the  losses  in  weight  resulting  from  transportation 
of  212  cattle  from  the  time  they  left  the  place  of  feeding  until  they  reached 
the  stockyards  amounted  to  7.97  to  8.95  per  cent,  of  their  live  weight. 

In  buying  by  dressed  weight,  which  is  practically  confined  to  stock- 
yards, a  certain  price  is  agreed  upon  at  the  time  of  the  deal  to  be  paid 
in  accordance  with  the  weight  of  the  cooled,  dressed  carcass.  By 
dressed  weight  is  generally  understood,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
regional  variations: 

(a)  For  cattle,  the  weight  of  a  bled  and  skinned  carcass  after  removal  of 
the  head  at  the  atlantooccipital  joint,  feet  at  the  carpus,  the  external  and 
internal  sexual  organs,  and  other  viscera,  with  the  exception  of  the  kidneys; 
in  other  words,  the  weight  of  the  four  quarters. 

(6)  For  calves  and  sheep,  the  same  conditions  as  for  cattle. 

(c)  For  hogs,  the  weight  of  the  bled  and  eviscerated  carcass.  Only  the  kidneys 
with  the  leaf  fat  remain  in  the  animal.  The  head,  however,  is  weighed  with 
the  carcass,  but  the  tongue,  which  remains  on  the  pluck  (haslets,  consisting 
of  the  larynx,  trachea,  heart,  lungs,  and  liver),  is  not  included. 

In  all  species  of  animals  there  exists  a  certain  proportion  between 
live  and  dressed  weight,  which  principally  depends  on  the  nutritive 
condition  of  the  animals.  Well-fattened  animals  naturally  produce 
a  higher  dressed  weight  than  those  which  are  in  poor  condition.  The 
proportion  of  dressed  to  live  weight  is  given  in  the  following  table, 
expressed  in  percentage: 


Dressed  weight  represented  in  percentage  of  live  weight. 


Quality. 

Steers. 

Bulls. 

Cows. 

Calves. 

Sheep. 

Hogs. 

Full  flesh,  fattened,  highest  dressed 
value      ....... 
Young,    fleshy,    but    not   fattened, 
older  cattle  fattened    .      .      . 
Third  class      
Fourth  class 

58  to  61 

53  to  55 
48  to  52 
42  to  46 

58  to  62 

50  to  56 
46  to  50 

55  to  60 

50  to  54 
48  to  52 
42  to  46 

62  to  68 

58  to  62 
50  to  56 
40  to  45 

48  to  53 

45  to  48 
38  to  44 

80  to  85 

78  to  82 
70  to  78 
76  to  80 

In  specially  good  animals  even  a  higher  dressed  weight  can  be  obtained, 
as,  for  instance,  good,  well-developed  young  bulls  may  dress  over  70  per  cent., 
and  the  best  fattened  hogs  may  even  dress  out  90  per  cent,  of  their  live  weight. 

Hengst,  at  the  Leipzig  stockyards  and  abattoirs,  established  the  average 
weights  in  a  large  number  of  food  animals  as  follows : 


FOOD  ANIMALS 


23 


Animal  species. 

Live  weight. 

Dressed  weight. 

Average 
dressed 
weight 
in   per- 
centage 
of  the  live 
weight. 

Number 
of  the 
weighed 
animals. 

Average 
weight 
per  head. 

Number 
of  the 
weighed 
animals. 

Average 
weight 
per  head. 

jteers            . 
iulls             
}ows             .      . 
leifers         .      . 
halves          .      . 
5heep            

9,518 
•      4,119 
5,067 
841 
14,197 
5,471 
6,823 

Kg. 
695.81 
647  .  93 
560.01 
468  .  55 
69.58 
53.58 
107.30 

90,115 
20,559 
62,689 
8,028 
6,653 
25,281 
146,205 

Kg. 
374  .  55 
365  .  96 
277.79 
253  .  80 
44.01 
29.11 
89.89 

53.83 
56.48 
49.60 
54.17 
63.25 
54.33 
83.77 

For  establishing  the  dressed  weight  in  stockyards,  dealers  and  butchers 
have,  as  a  rule,  agreed  upon  certain  principles,  which  are  usually  carried  out 
in  slaughtering  the  animals. 

The  amount  of  foodstuffs  in  the  digestive  tract  has  a  marked  effect 
on  the  relation  between*  the  live  and  dressed  weight  in  the  food  animals. 
This  depends  on  the  kind  of  food,  the  time  of  slaughter,  and  the  extent 
of  driving  or  transportation  to  which  the  animal  has  been  subjected 
after  the  last  feeding.  As  occasionally  this  gives  rise  to  deception 
and  fraudulent  actions  and  causes  differences  between  buyer  and 
seller,  knowledge  of  certain  average  figures  of  the  weight  of  the  gastro- 
intestinal canal  and  its  contents  is  of  importance. 

With  reference  to  this,  Wolff  makes  the  following  statement:  In  fasting 
animals  the  weight  of  the  gastro-intestinal  canal,  including  its  contents, 
amounted  in  fat  steers  to  16.1  per  cent.;  in  medium  fat  steers,  19.5  per  cent.; 
in  medium  fattened  steers,  24.5  per  cent.;  in  fat  calves,  10.6  per  cent.;  in  fat 
hogs,  7.9  per  cent.;  in  medium  fattened  hogs,  12.1  per  cent. 

According  to  Hintzen's  examinations,  the  relative  weight  of  this  material 
averaged  in  fasting  cows  18.2  per  cent.;  in  fasting  calves,  9.2  per  cent.;  in 
fasting  hogs,  7.6  per  cent. 

P.  Falk  ascertained  the  average  weight  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  and 
intestines  in  37  cattle,  and  found  that  it  represented  16.35  per  cent,  of  the  live 
weight. 

Noack  in  his  investigation  on  the  indigestions  of  food  animals  considered 
only  the  weight  of  the  stomachs  and  their  contents,  and  computed  the  results 
in  relation  to  the  dressed  weights. 

The  latter  are  shown  in  the  following  comparisons: 


*| 

|li 

M 

"11 

3 

q 

a  d 

M 

.B 

ii  i^ 

£ 

,3 

sll 

M 

"3  0)-flM 

Species  of  animals. 

1 

M 
1 

to 

1 

l|il 

| 

""^      fcfl 

§ 

I 

iff 

•S  Sy3 

1 

fill 

fe 

Q 

<J 

P 

< 

PM 

Steers        

10 

300  to  500 

400.0 

49  to  140 

94.5 

21.1 

Cows   

7 

225  to  375 

300.0 

45  to  120 

82.5 

27.5 

Bulls    

17 

250  to  600 

425.0 

45  to  105 

75.0 

17.6 

Total  cattle    .... 

34 

225  to  600 

412.5 

45  to  140 

92.5    - 

22.4 

Calves       .      . 

12 

25.  5  to    55.5 

40.5 

1  .  5  to  8  .  0 

4.75 

11.7 

Sheep  

17 

11.  5  to    37.0 

24.25 

3  .  5  to  9  .  5 

6.5 

26.8 

Hogs    . 

15 

57  0  to  109  0 

83  0 

1  .  5  to  7  .  5 

4.5 

5  4 

24  ORIGIN^AND  SOVHCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

In  contrast  to  these  figures  Noack  found  the  weight  of  stomachs  from  11 
steers  with  indigestion  between  23  and  42  per  cent,  of  the  dressed  weight. 

With  reference  to  the  absolute  and  relative  weights  of  the  principal  organs 
of  cattle  (heart,  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  and  spleen),  calculated  on  the  live  and 
dressed  weights,  see  Chapter  II,  p.  68. 

Classification  of  Food  Animals. — In  the  larger  stockyards  the  average 
prices  which  prevail  are  officially  published  after  the  close  of  the  market. 
These  prices  generally  refer  to  the  live  and  dressed  weight  of  the  various 
food  animals,  but  at  some  places  only  one  of  the  two  prices  is  quoted. 
The  market  quotations  serve  not  only  as  a  guide  to  the  condition 
of  the  markets,  but  also  afford  a  comparison  of  the  various  markets, 
and  above  all  they  disclose  to  the  stock  raiser,  from  time  to  time, 
the  market  values  of  food  animals. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  benefit  from  market  quotations, 
representatives  of  the  interested  parties  (stockyard  managers,  stock 
dealers,  butchers,  stock  raisers)  established  -the  following  uniform 
scheme  for  the  classification  of  food  animals,  which  forms  the  present 
basis  of  market  quotations  at  the  larger  stockyards: 

Steers: 

1.  Steers  up  to  six  years  in  full  flesh,  finished  as  regards  fattening,  and 

of  the  highest  slaughter  value. 

2.  Young  fleshy  steers,  but  not  finished  in  fattening;  older  fattened  steers. 

3.  Moderately  nourished  young  steers;  well  nourished  older  steers. 

4.  Poorly  nourished  steers  of  all  ages. 
Bulls: 

1.  Bulls  in  full  flesh  of  the  highest  slaughter  value. 

2.  Moderately  nourished  younger  bulls. 

3.  Poorly  nourished  bulls. 
Heifers  and  Cows: 

1.  Heifers  in  full  flesh,  finished  in  fattening  and  of  the  highest  slaughter 

value. 

2.  Cows  up  to  seven  years  .in  full  flesh,  finished  as  regards  fattening, 

and  of  the  highest  slaughter  value. 

3.  Older  cows  finished  in  fattening  and  more  poorly  developed  younger 

cows  and  heifers. 

4.  Moderately  nourished  cows  and  heifers. 

5.  Poorly  nourished  cows  and  heifers. 
Calves: 

1.  The  finest  fattened  calves  (fattened  on  milk)  and  the  best  suckling 

calves. 

2.  Moderately  fattened  and  good  suckling  calves. 

3.  Poor  suckling  calves. 

4.  Older  poorly  nourished  calves  (feeders). 
Sheep: 

1.  Fattened  lambs. 

2.  Young  fattened  wethers. 

3.  Old  fattened  wethers. 

4.  Moderately  nourished  wethers  and  ewes. 
Hogs: 

1.  (a)  Hogs  in  full  flesh,  of  fine  breeds,  and  their  crossings  up  to  one  and 

one-quarter  years  old  (weight  220  to  280  pounds) ;  (6)  fattened  hogs. 

2.  Fleshy  hogs. 

3.  Poorly  developed  hogs. 

4.  Sows  and  boars. 

5.  Foreign  hogs. 


FOOD  ANIMALS  25 

Transportation  of  Food  Animals. — The  transportation  of  food  animals 
should  also  be  given  consideration  in  the  inspection  of  meat,  since  as  a 
result  of  shipment  the  condition  of  the  animals,  as  well  as  the  con- 
sistency of  the  flesh,  may  be  more  or  less  affected.  Transportation 
may  take  place  by  driving,  carting,  railroad,  or  by  boat. 

Transportation  by  driving  affects  food  animals  to  a  degree  corre- 
sponding with  their  being  accustomed  to  outdoor  exercise  and  the 
temperature  of  the  season.  This  transportation  is  conducted  with 
the  least  effect  on  horses,  sheep,  and  such  cattle  as  were  raised  on 
pasture;  more  difficulty  is  met  with  stabled  cattle,  calves,  and  hogs. 
At  present,  driving  of  cattle  is  usually  only  employed  for  short  dis- 
tances, and  for  longer  distances  only  when  the  cattle  are  well  accus- 
tomed to  long  drives.  As  the  driving  of  fattened  cattle  affects  them 
unfavorably,  in  proportion  to  their  fleshiness,  they  are  driven  only 
over  very  short  distances.  The  voice,  sticks,  and  dogs  are  employed 
in  driving  the  animals.  While  dogs  can  be  scarcely  spared  in  driving 

FIG.  1 


Bull  with  casting  apparatus  showing  method  of  application.    (After  Dick.) 

sheep,  they  frequently  cause  considerable  excitement  among  animals 
of  other  species.  Sometimes  as  a  means  of  compulsion  to  stubborn 
cattle  the  tail  of  the  animal  is  twisted,  which,  however,  may  degenerate 
into  cruelty  and  produce  anatomical  lesions  in  the  tail  (fractures, 
bruises,  etc.). 

To  prevent  cattle  from  running  away  the  so-called  "draw  back 
or  pulley"  harness  (Fig.  1)  is  frequently  used. 

All  animals  transported  by  driving  will  get  more  or  less  excited 
and  tire  to  a  certain  extent.  Should  such  excited  and  tired  animals 
be  slaughtered  immediately,  they  will  bleed  out  incompletely  in  most 
instances,  and  the  keeping  quality  of  their  meat  will  frequently  be 
decreased.  Accordingly,  transported  animals,  as  a  rule,  are  slaughtered 
after  they  have  been  allowed  a  period  of  rest,  the  length  of  which 
depends  on  the  temperature  of  the  season  and  the  condition  and  fatigue 
of  the  animal.  Some  animal  and  meat  inspection  regulations  prescribe 
a  certain  number  of  hours  as  a  resting  period  before  slaughter  of  trans- 


26 


ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 


ported  animals.      When  this  is  not  the  case,  the  veterinary  inspector 
should,  in  accordance  with  his  findings  of  the  antemortem  inspection, 
forbid  the  slaughter  of  the  animals  until  they  have  regained  a  com- 
fortable state  and  have  entirely  recovered  from  the  effects  of  the 
transportation. 

In  transporting  by  conveyance  the  vehicles  must  be  suitably  con- 
structed for  the  respective  species  of  animals,  and  must  permit  a  careful 
loading  and  unloading.  Animals  should  be  fettered  only  to  the  extent 
of  preventing  them  from  jumping  out  of  the  wagon.  Forcible  and  pain- 
ful tying  of  the  legs  of  calves  and  sheep,  especially  with  thin,  cutting 
strings,  is  unwarranted.  The  frequent  practice  of  crowding  animals 
into  a  too  limited  space  is  also  to  be  condemned.  The  more  the  animals 

FIG.  2 


Stock  car  for  transportation  of  live  animals. 

are  fettered  the  more  they  struggle,  and  for  this  reason  the  advantages 
of  transporting  by  wagon  are  limited.  In  summer,  animals  should 
be  protected  against  the  heat  of  the  sun.  Hogs  are  advantageously 
cooled  by  occasionally  pouring  cold  water  over  them,  or,  still  better, 
by  transporting  them  at  night. 

Today  transportation  by  rail  plays  the  most  important  part,  and 
is  generally  carried  out  in  accordance  with  appropriate  regulations. 
For  this  method  of  transportation  a  special  type  of  car  is  employed, 
built  especially  for  the  transportation  of  live  stock  (Fig.  2).  It  is 
of  prescribed  size,  and  is  equipped  with  appropriate  ventilation,  as 
well  as  with  contrivances  for  feeding  and  watering. 

A  special  type  of  stock  car  is  the  so-called  double-deck  car,  or  two- 
story  car,  which  consists  of  two  divisions,  one  above  the  other.  It 


FOOD  ANIMALS  27 

is  used  for  the  shipment  of  sheep  and  hogs.  But  the  common  closed 
box  cars  are  considered  preferable  by  shippers  for  the  transportation 
of  animals  by  rail.  These,  however,  frequently  do  not  meet  the  require- 
ments demanded  from  a  hygienic  and  humanitarian  standpoint. 

For  loading  and  transporting  of  animals  by  rail,  appropriate  regulations 
are  in  existence,  which,  however,  require  modifications  and  improvement. 
Cattle,  as  a  rule,  are  placed  crosswise  in  a  fully  loaded  car;  that  is,  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  long  axis  of  the  car.  According  to  Zschokke,  adult  bulls  and  steers 
require  for  this  purpose  66  c.m.  and  cows  57  c.m.  of  the  car  length.  For  hogs 
an  average  of  0.40  sq.m.  of  floor  space  should  be  required;  for  calves,  0.31 
sq.m.,  and  for  sheep,  0.24  sq.m.  per  animal. 

For  the  transportation  of  hogs  and  small  stock  it  is  advisable  to  divide  the 
cars  with  cross  partitions  into  several  compartments,  and  in  mixed  shipments 
separate  divisions  for  the  different  species  of  animals  should  be  required.  Only 
suckling  calves  are  allowed  to  be  loaded  together  with  their  mothers. 

The  disadvantages  and  dangers  of  railroad  transportation  of  food  animals 
depend  on  various  conditions.  It  is  greater  for  fat  animals  than  for  lean  ones. 
The  closer  they  are  loaded,  the  warmer  the  temperature,  the  greater  the  dis- 
tance, and  the  less  suitably  the  cars  are  arranged,  the  greater  are  the  dis- 
advantages. Hogs  suffer  comparatively  the  most,  and  deaths  from  suffocation 
and  paralysis  of  the  heart  are  not  infrequent.  Cattle  are  often  greatly  affected 
by  the  frequent  switching  of  the  cars.  They  may  be  thrown  down,  and  are 
then  stepped  upon  by  others,  and  may  die  as  a  result  of  the  injuries,  or  even 
from  suffocation. 

A  peculiar  disease,  sometimes  observed  in  cattle  as  a  result  of  railroad  trans- 
portation, is  designated  as  railroad  sickness.  This  affection  manifests  itself 
as  a  severe  nervous  disorder,  which,  in  a  well-developed  state,  does  not  appear 
unlike  parturient  apoplexy.  The  termination  of  the  disease  is  usually  unfavor- 
able, and  makes  early  slaughter  of  the  affected  cattle  advisable. 

The  transportation  of  food  animals  by  boat  comes  principally  into 
consideration  in  importations  from  across  the  sea,  and  for  this  service 
specially  equipped  steamers  are  employed.  The  loading  and  unload- 
ing of  the  animals  is  sometimes  accompanied  with  considerable  diffi- 
culties, while  the  transportation  itself,  if  the  weather  is  not  stormy, 
is  not  followed  by  any  more  marked  disadvantages  than  railroad  trans- 
portation. In  regard  to  the  sheltering  of  the  animals  on  boats,  every- 
thing said  in  relation  to  railroad  transportation  may  be  applied  here. 

The  transportation  of  horses  by  boat  is  described  by  Horauf  in 
a  highly  instructive  article  in  the  Berl.  Thierarzt.  Wochensch.,  No.  40, 
1906, 

The  period  of  rest  before  slaughter  should  be  required  for  animals  trans- 
ported by  wagon  or  boat,  and  it  should  be  extended  in  accordance  with  the 
condition  of  the  animals.  Generally  the  time  will  be  considerably  shorter 
than  in  animals  transported  afoot. 

It  is  readily  understood  that  food  animals  lose  more  or  less  of  their  live 
weight  as  a  result  of  all  kinds  of  transportation.  It  is  impossible,  however, 
to  establish  definite  figures  relative  to  that  loss,  on  account  of  the  great  differ- 
ences in  feeding  and  the  conditions  of  transportation. 

[In  the  United  States  the  transportation  of  animals  is  governed  by 
a  decree  (Public  No.  340),  enacted  by  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
and  approved  June  29,  1906.] 


28  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

Importation  of  Food  Animals  from  Foreign  Countries. — The  importa- 
tion of  food  animals  from  foreign  countries  into  the  provinces  of  the 
German  Empire  is  regulated  by  decrees  from  the  Imperial  Chancellor, 
as  well  as  by  the  governments  of  the  allied  states. 

On  account  of  the  changes  in  the  standing  of  contagious  diseases 
of  animals  in  the  countries  from  which  importations  are  made,  the 
regulations  governing  the  importation  are  changed  from  time  to  time. 
At  present  food  animals  may  be  imported : 

1.  From  Austria-Hungary  cattle  and  sheep  which  comply  with  the  required 
conditions  may  be  imported  to  a  large  number  of  public  abattoirs.    The  cattle 
must  be  kept  separate  from  the  domestic  cattle  and  must  be  slaughtered  within 
a  certain  time  limit   (four  days).     Besides,  permission  is  granted  to  import 
annually  80,000  hogs  for  immediate  slaughter,  50,000  of  them  to  the  boundary 
abattoirs  of  Bavaria,  namely,   Passau  and  Rossenheim,   and  30,000  to  the 
abattoirs  of  Bodenbach,  lying  on  the  boundary  of  Bohemia.     The  meat  of 
these  hogs  is  permitted  to  be  sold  only  at  certain  places.    The  importation  of 
cattle  from  Austria-Hungary  was  fundamentally  regulated  in  the  agreement 
on  contagious  diseases  between  the  German  Empire  and  Austria-Hungary 
of  January  25,   1905,  which  went  into  effect  March  1,   1906.     Accordingly, 
the  allied  states  have  issued  special  regulations. 

2.  Hogs  from  Russia  may  be  imported  weekly  in  exactly  specified  numbers 
into  certain  abattoirs  at  Benthen,  Kattowitz,  Myslowitz,  Tarnowitz. 

3.  Cattle  from  Denmark  may  be  brought  to  specified  quarantine  stations, 
in  which  they  remain  ten  days  for  the  purpose  of  a  tuberculin  test.     After 
this  time  cattle  which  did  not  react  to  the  tuberculin  test  may  be  shipped  for 
immediate  slaughter  to  the  abattoirs  which  are  open  for  Austrio-Hungarian 
cattle.     The  cattle  which  reacted,  cannot  be  utilized  in  Germany,  but  must 
be  again  exported. 

The  result  of  the  postmortem  inspection  of  slaughtered  cattle  must  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  quarantine  authorities,  and  animals  found  tuberculous  must 
be  particularly  specified.  (Proclamation  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  of  Feb- 
ruary 21,  1898,  in  relation  to  the  procedure  of  imported  cattle  by  the  sea  route 
from  Denmark  and  Sweden-Norway.) 

4.  Cattle  from  Switzerland  accompanied  by  health  certificates. 

5.  Exceptionally  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  from  Luxemburg  brought 
to  several  public  abattoirs  of  Alsace-Lorraine  for  immediate  slaughter. 

The  importation  of  prepared  meat  in  accordance  with  the  imperial  meat 
inspection  law,  when  there  are  no  restrictions  in  the  meat  inspection  law  and 
in  the  laws  on  infectious  diseases  of  animals,  may  be  permitted  from  any 
country.  There  are  no  veterinary  police  prohibitions  against  the  importation 
of  all  sorts  of  fresh  meats  from  Russia,  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria,  also 
of  fresh  beef  from  America.  The  importation  of  cattle  from  North  America 
is  prohibited.  Sheep  and  hogs  are  subjected  to  a  quarantine  of  four  weeks. 

[The  importation  of  animals  into  the  United  States  is  governed 
by  the  •"  Regulations  for  the  inspection  and  quarantine  of  imported 
animals  into  the  United  States/'  contained  in  "Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Order  180"  and  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  by 
authority  of  acts  of  Congress  of  February  2,  1903,  and  March  4,  1911. 
These  regulations  designate  the  countries  from  which  animals  may 
be  imported  into  the  United  States  as  well  as  the  quarantine  period 
required  for  the  detention  and  observation  of  the  imported  animals. 
All  cattle  imported  into  the  United  States  from  any  part  of  the  world 


FOOD  ANIMALS  29 

except  North  America,  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  the  Channel 
Islands  are  subject  to  a  quarantine  of  ninety  days,  counting  from  the 
date  of  shipment,  this  date  of  shipment  to.be  the  date  of  clearance 
of  the  vessel  bringing  the  animals  to  the  United  States.  Sheep  and 
other  ruminants  and  swine  from  any  part  of  the  world  except  North 
America  shall  be  subject  to  a  quarantine  of  fifteen  days,  counting  from 
the  date  of  arrival  at  the  quarantine  station.  However,  cattle  and 
sheep  imported  for  immediate  slaughter  at  the  port  of  landing  may 
be  imported  without  quarantine,  but  are  subject  to  such  restrictions 
as  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  after  causing  an  inspec- 
tion to  be  made,  may  consider  necessary  in  each  case  for  guarding  the 
domestic  animals  of  the  United  States  from  contagion.  Further, 
the  period  of  quarantine  for  cattle  imported  from  Great  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  the  Channel  Islands  is  thirty  days,  counting  from  the  date  of  arrival 
at  the  quarantine  station.] 

Insurance  of  Food  Animals. — As  the  insurance  of  food  animals  is 
of  great  importance  to  the  trade  in  food  animals,  as  well  as  to  the  ante- 
mortem  and  postmortem  meat  inspection,  and  as  the  experts  on  meat 
inspection  have  frequently  to  cooperate  in  this  matter,  it  seems  advis- 
able that  the  methods  of  insurance  should  be  at  least  superficially 
treated  at  this  time. 

The  insurance  of  food  animals  may  be  carried  out  in  many  various 
forms.  These"  are  distinguished  in  accordance  with  their  territorial 
bounds  as  local,  regional,  provincial,  and  continental  insurances. 
Regarding  the  managements,  there  are  private,  cooperative,  com- 
munity, and  state  insurances.  Participation  in  the  insurance  may 
be  voluntary  or  compulsory;  in  the  same  way  it  may  be  extended  to 
all  the  food  animals  or  only  to  a  certain  species  of  them.  The  insurance 
premium  is,  as  a  rule,  a  certain  definite  sum,  and  is  paid  for  every 
animal  at  the  place  where  the  animals  are  marketed  or  slaughtered; 
and  in  either  instance  it  is  supposed  that  the  animals  are  examined 
by  an  expert  and  found  acceptable  of  insurance.  This  is  occasionally 
manifested  by  a  special  marking  of  the  live  animals,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose branding  on  the  horns  or  claws  (Fig.  3),  or  the  use  of  ear  tags, 
is  considered  the  most  appropriate  (Figs.  4  to  7).  Such  marking  may 
also  be  applied  to  small  stock.  For  live  hogs  the  pricking  stamps, 
with  or  without  stains  (Fig.  8),  are  highly  satisfactory,  or  tattooing 
pincers,  with  which  markings  are  applied  to  the  ears  (Fig.  9). 

The  insurance  company  pays  indemnity,  as  a  rule,  only  when  the 
entire  carcass,  or  a  large  part  of  it,  is  declared  unsuitable  for  human 
food,  or  is  only  conditionally  passed  by  the  veterinary  inspector.  The 
indemnity  is  paid,  chiefly  to  the  full  value  of  the  animal,  which  is 
determined  either  from  the  declared  sales  price,  or  after  slaughter 
by  the  establishment  of  the  weight  and  the  estimation  of  the  quality 
of  the  meat.  Besides  this  many  insurance  companies  remit  the  expenses 
which  result  from  the  charges  for  slaughter  and  other  fees  in  connec- 
tion with  the  latter.  Other  insurance  companies  allow  only  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  value  of  the  animal  as  indemnity.  Such  insurance 


30 


ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 


measures  established  by  the  State  and  supported  by  the  State  treasury, 
are  at  the  present  maintained  in  the  following  states: 

1.  In  the  Grandduchy  of  Baden,  the  townships  are  authorized  by  the  law 
of  June  26,  1890,  and  that  of  1901,  to  establish  insurance  for  the  cattle  stock, 


FIG.  3 


Large  benzin  apparatus  for  heating  irons  (Hauptner,  Berlin).  The  flame  passes  into  a  box  lined 
with  fire  clay,  which  accommodates  two  firing  irons;  they  are  heated  in  a  few  minutes  to  a  red  heat. 
Size  of  the  apparatus,  53  x  22  x  18  cm.;  weight,  14.5  kg. 


FIG.  4 


FIG.  5 


Anchor  ear  tags,  according  to  Schumann.  The 
tags,  which  are  also  supplied  in  white  or  colored 
tin,  can  be  easily  marked  or  numbered  with  a 
steel  needle.  The  tags  are  also  supplied  with  any 
kind  of  marking  which  may  be  desired. 


Showing  application  of  tag. 


FOOD  ANIMALS 


31 


locally  or  cooperatively,  which  numbered,  at  the  end  of  1899,  185.     In  case 
of  death  /„,  and  in  case  of  emergency  slaughter,  A  of  the  value  is  allowed. 


FIG. 


FIG.  7 


Improved  ear  tags,   according   to  Hink 
Drawert,  of  the  firm  of  Hauptner,  Berlin. 


FIG.  8 


Nippers  for  inserting  the  tags. 
FIG.  9 


Pricking  stamp  with  hollow 
probe-like  pins,  according  to 
Siedamgrotzky. 


Tattooing  pincers  with  two  letters  and  impression. 
(After  Hauptner,  Berlin. 


2.  In  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  the  law  of  May  12,  1896,  established  a  public 
chamber  of  State  stock  insurance  which  forms  the  central  place  for  the  volunteer 
and  township  stock  insurances  which  are  united  into  the  State  union.  The 
insurance  indemnifies  for  dead  or  condemned  slaughtered  cattle  at  rV  to  rV 


32  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

of  their  value.    Such  insurance  included  in  the  fall  of  1901  about  1551  town- 
ship insurance  associations. 

3.  In  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  these  regulations  have  been  somewhat  modified 
by  the  law  of  April  24,  1906,  which  went  into  effect  January  1,  1907.    Simulta- 
neously with  the  introduction  of  the  general  animal  and  meat  inspection  law 
of  June  1,  1900,  a  State  food  animal  insurance  was  established  in  the  law  of 
June  2,  1898,  -with  the  provisions  for  execution  of  July  24,  1899.     All  cattle 
and  hogs  over  three  months  of  age  coming  for  slaughter,  which  have  been  a 
certain  time  in  the  territory  of  that  State  are  subject  to  this  State  insurance. 
As  indemnity  for  the  animal  condemned  on  meat  inspection  or  those  passed 
conditionally,  TO  of  the  loss  is  allowed,  which  is  obtained  by   deducting  the 
actual  value  of  the  slaughtered  animal  from  the  market  value  of  the  dressed 
weight,  and  which  is  officially  established  at  regular  intervals  for  the  various 
species. 

4.  In  the  principality  of  Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen  a  State  food  animal 
insurance  was  established  October   1,   1900.     This  applies  to  cattle,  calves, 
and  hogs.    Unwholesome  meat  and  that  of  inferior  quality  are  paid  for  at  their 
full  value. 

5.  In  the  principalities  of  Reuss  a  State  food  animal  insurance  is  maintained, 
based  on  the  laws  of  March  10,  1903,  and  March  12,  1903,  with  regulations 
of  May  15,  1903,  which  went  into  effect  on  July  1,  1903.    All  cattle  (including 
calves)  and  hogs  which   are   slaughtered   in  the  principality,  and  which  are 
sold  for  the  purpose  of  slaughter,  must  be  insured.     The  indemnities  of  the 
condemned  animals  amount  to  the  full  value,  but  no  settlement  is  made  for 
losses  less  than  $1.25. 

6.  In  the  Grandduchy  of  Hessen  the  law  of  April  12,  1905,  contemplated 
a  State  food  animal  insurance,  but  lately  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  will  go  into 
effect.    Insurance  is  compulsory  for  all  cattle  over  three  months  of  age  which 
are  slaughtered  for  commercial  purposes,  or  if  the  animal  had  to  be  slaughtered 
immediately  on  account  of  some  injury.     The  indemnity  for  carcasses  con- 
demned, conditionally  passed,  or  of  inferior  value  is  established  by  the  full 
value  of  the  carcass,  from  which  deductions  are  made  of  the  actual  value  of 
the  utilizable  parts. 

It  is  one  of  the  urgent  duties  of  every  veterinarian  connected  with 
meat  inspection  to  familiarize  himself  thoroughly  with  the  insurance 
of  food  animals  and  the  regulations  in  the  territory  to  which  his  activity 
extends,  in  order  that  he  may  not  commit  errors,  but  act  as  an  expert 
adviser  to  the  interested  parties. 

[There  is  at  present  no  food  animal  insurance  in  the  United  States, 
but  as  such  splendid  results  have  been  obtained  in  the  different  countries 
of  Europe  by  the  above-described  methods  of  insurance,  it  is  quite 
probable  that  in  the  course  of  time  an  insurance  will  be  established 
which  will  protect  the  packers  and  shippers  from  the  great  losses 
sustained  from  the  transportation  and  condemnation  of  food-producing 
animals.] 

Conditions  of  Obligations  (Guarantee). — Regarding  the  guarantee 
obligations  against  certain  affections  in  purchased  animals,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  refer  to  the  German  citizens'  law  book,  which  prescribes  the 
obligations  of  the  seller  in  regard  to  some  affections.  According  to  Sec. 
482,  the  seller  is  responsible  only  for  certain  deficiencies  (principal 
deficiencies),  and  only  then  when  they  appear  inside  of  a  certain  time 
(guarantee  limit) .  The  principal  defects  and  guarantee  limits  for  trade 


FOOD  ANIMALS  33 

in  food  animals  are  given  below  in  Sec.  2  of  the  imperial  decree,  March 
27,  1899. 

For  the  sale  of  animals  which  are  to  be  slaughtered  and  are  destined  as 
food  for  human  beings  (food  animals),  the  following  principal  defects  are  to 
be  considered: 

I.  In  horses,   asses,   and  mules:     Glanders   (farcy),  providing  the   disease 
occurs  within  a  time  guarantee  of  fourteen  days. 

II.  In  cattle:    Tubercular  affections.     In  cases  where  the  extension  of  the 
disease  is  so  great  that  more  than  half  of  the  dressed  weight  is  condemned 
or  is  only  conditionally  passed  for  human  food  providing  such  lesions  are  found 
within  the  time  guarantee  of  fourteen  days. 

III.  In  sheep:     General  dropsy,  with  a  time  guarantee  of  fourteen  days; 
under  general  dropsy  is  to  be  considered  a  dropsical  condition  of  the  meat, 
brought  on  by  an  internal  affection  or  by  insufficient  nutrition. 

IV.  In  hogs: 

1.  Tubercular  affections  as  mentioned  in  No.  II,  with  a  time  guarantee 

of  fourteen  days. 

2.  Trichinosis,  with  a  time  guarantee  of  fourteen  days. 

3.  Measles  (cysticercus  cellulosa?),  with  a  time  limit  of  fourteen  days. 

[In  the  purchase  of  live  stock  in  the  United  States  no  guarantee,  as 
a  rule,  accompanies  the  transaction,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
custom  followed  in  certain  localities  whereby  the  stock  is  bought 
subject  to  postmortem  inspection.  This  method,  however,  is  generally 
applied  only  to  wagonloads  of  hogs,  and  animals  which  have  been 
tuberculin  tested  and  have  reacted  to  the  test.  Furthermore,  the  ani- 
mals which  are  condemned  or  marked  as  inspected  by  State  inspectors 
in  certain  stockyards  are  also  sold  subject  to  the  postmortem  examina- 
tion of  the  Federal  inspector.  The  practice  which  formerly  obtained 
with  reference  to  the  resale  to  other  packers  of  animals  marked  as 
suspected  by  a  Federal  antemortem  inspector  does  not  obtain  under 
the  new  law,  as  at  present  all  antemortem  inspections  are  made  by 
the  Government  only  after  the  animals  have  been  sold  to  the  packer 
who  wishes  the  carcasses,  and  such  suspect  animals  are  then  killed 
separately  from  the  regular  kill.] 

Age  of  Food  Animals. — In  the  inspection  of  animals  and  meats, 
strictly  speaking,  only  the  age  of  calves  plays  an  important  part, 
while  the  age  of  other  food  animals  is  of  minor  value. 

1.  The  age  of  calves  is  of  importance,  since  in  the  greater  part  of 
Germany  it  is  accepted  by  the  public  that  veal  comes  on  the  market 
in  a  certain  state  of  development  when  it  has  attained  the  proper 
maturity  for  slaughter.  (See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulat.  13,  Sec.  27.) 
As  in  general  this  fitness  for  slaughter  is  only  reached  after  a  certain 
age,  the  veterinary  inspector  must  decide  the  age  of  calves  in  doubt- 
ful cases.  For  establishing  the  age  in  calves  the  following  should  be 
considered : 

(a)  Calves,  according  to  Pusch,  are  born  with  eight  milk  incisors  and 

the  premolar  teeth.     Should  the  corner  incisors  at  the  time  of  birth 

be  covered  by  the  mucous  membrane,  so  that  their  presence  can  be 

both  seen  and  felt,  they  will  break  through  in  two  to  six  days.     In 

3 


34  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

the  beginning  the  highly  reddened  gum  lies  closely  on  the  incisors  and 
almost  covers  them,  but  after  seven  to  ten  days  it  recedes  gradually, 
so  that  the  shovel  form  of  the  incisors  becomes  more  and  more  apparent. 
In  this  way,  after  two  weeks  the  shovel  form  appears  free  in  the  central 
and  first  lateral  incisors;  soon  this  is  followed  on  the  second  lateral 
incisors,  and  finally,  after  three  to  four  weeks,  on  the  corner  teeth. 
At  the  age  of  one  month  all  the  crowns  of  the  incisors  grow  entirely  out 
of  the  gum,  which  retains  its  permanent  pale  pinkish-red  color,  and 
lies  against  the  crowns  of  the  incisors  in  the  form  of  the  characteristic 
pad. 

(&)  The  stump  of  the  navel  cord,  which  remains  on  the  newly  born 
calf,  dries  in  the  first  four  to  six  days,  and  separates  from  the  abdominal 
wall  in  the  second  week  of  life,  leaving  a  moist,  sensitive  surface,  which 
is  soon  covered  by  a  scab.  In  two  to  three  weeks  the  cicatrization  of 
the  navel  wound  takes  place,  from  which  the  scab  falls  off  generally 
inside  of  the  fourth  to  fifth  week.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  may  occur, 
and  are  frequently  caused  by  inflammatory  suppurative  processes  of  the 
navel. 

(c)  During  the  first  week  of  life  the  lumen  of  the  umbilical  vein  is 
found  to  be  still  wide  open  and  filled  with  liquid  blood. 

(d)  The  soft,  arched  pad  on  the  sole  of  the  claws  of  the  newly  born 
calf  becomes  hard  in  the  first  days  after  birth  and  wears  off  in  pro- 
portion to  the  amount  of  moving  about  that  is  done  by  the  animal. 

(e)  The  formation  of  the  horns  on  the  frontal  bones  appears,  accord- 
ing to  Gerlach,  from  the  third  week  on  in  the  form  of  a  slight  thickening 
of  the  skin.    By  the  fifth  week  the  hair  becomes  scanty  at  these  points, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  second  month  the  horn  cap  makes  its  appearance. 
After  three  months  a  movable  horn  point  may  be  distinguished,  which 
in  heifer  calves  is  2  cm.  long,  while  in  bull  calves  it  is  3  cm.  long.    The 
fixed  condition  of  the  small  horns  appears  in  bull  calves  after  four 
months,  and  in  heifer  calves  after  five  to  six  months. 

(/)  The  change  in  the  color  of  the  kidneys,  described  by  Villain 
and  Bascou  for  establishing  the  age  of  calves,  is  not  admissible,  as  it 
is  not  typical. 

(g)  Morot  has  also  attempted  to  establish  a  relationship  between 
the  ossification  of  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal  bones  and  the  age. 
Up  to  five  to  six  weeks  of  age  the  longitudinal  halves  of  these  bones 
separate  if  they  are  cut  or  strongly  boiled.  The  surfaces  of  separa- 
tion are  rectilinear,  but  uneven  and  wrinkled.  Each  half  of  the  bone 
shows  its  special  marrow  cavity. 

In  deciding  whether  the  calf  is  old  enough  for  slaughter,  these  signs 
to  determine  the  ages  of  calves  may  be  supplemented  by  considering 
the  consistence  of  the  meat  and  fat,  which  in  doubtful  cases  is  the 
only  guide  for  the  inspector. 

Regarding  the  peculiarities  of  mature  veal,  see  Chapter  II;  the 
signs  of  immaturity  are  given  in  Chapter  VII,  page  192. 

Although  the  age  of  the  other  animals,  as  already  mentioned,  is  of 
minor  importance  in  meat  inspection,  the  following  tabulated  exhibit 


FOOD  ANIMALS  35 

should  furnish  some  information  in  regard  to  the  age  of  food  animals 
as  determined  by  the  teeth  (Ellenberger  and  Baum,  Handbuch  der 
Anatomie) . 

As  the  appearance  and  change  of  the  teeth  is  influenced  in  domestic  animals 
by  breed,  precocity,  and  care,  it  is  evident  that  in  determining  the  age  in  doubt- 
ful cases  special  works  on  animal  breeding  and  anatomy  should  be  consulted. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  to  all  veterinarians  that  with  the  aid  of  the  rings  on 
the  horns  of  the  cow,  which  develop  from  the  influence  of  pregnancy,  an  inspector 
may  be  able  to  determine  the  age  up  to  a  certain  point.  Two  added  to  the 
number  of  rings  on  horns  of  the  cow  will  generally  give  the  age.  This  applies  to 
cases  in  which  pregnancy  appeared  regularly.  Irregular  distances  between 
the  rings  are  indications  of  irregular  intervals  between  pregnancies. 

For  determining  the  age  of  slaughtered  cattle,  certain  points  of  ossification, 
and  especially  the  cartilaginous  extensions  of  the  first  four  to  five  spines  of  the 
dorsal  vertebrae,  may  be  advantageously  utilized.  On  the  split  extensions  of 
the  vertebral  spines  the  following  changes  are  manifested  with  the  advancement 
of  age : 

One  year,  cartilaginous  extension  entirely  cartilaginous. 

Two  years,  cartilaginous  extension  interwoven  with  small  single  bone  centres. 

Three  years,  cartilaginous  extension  diffused  with  bony  islands. 

Four  years,  cartilaginous  extension  more  so. 

Five  years,  the  bony  structure  exceeds  the  cartilage. 

Six  j^ears,  the  cartilaginous  extension  almost  entirely  ossified;  however, 
the  cartilaginous  border  can  be  plainly  distinguished  between  the  bony  process 
and  the  cartilaginous  extension. 

Seven  years,  the  cartilaginous  border  zone  still  plainly  visible. 

Eight  years,  the  cartilaginous  border  zone  only  slightly  perceptible. 

Nine  years,  all  cartilage  disappeared. 

The  ossified  cartilaginous  extension  is,  however,  of  a  lighter  color  and  more 
compact  than  the  bony  substance  of  the  vertebra  proper,  but  sometimes  a 
narrow  red  zone  forms  in  the  bony  -substance  of  the  former  cartilaginous  border. 
If,  therefore,  the  first  spinal  extensions  in  their  upper  third  are  uniformly 
compact,  the  cow  is  at  least  ten  years  old.  If  the  age  exceeds  twelve  years, 
the  spinal  extensions  gradually  change  into  a  grayish-yellow,  compact  bony 
substance. 

Slaughtering  of  Animals. — The  commercial  slaughter  of  animals 
begins  with  the  killing,  which  in  Germany  is  generally  carried  out 
by  bleeding.  The  latter  must  be  done  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  since 
the  content  of  the  blood  in  the  meat  influences  its  keeping  qualities. 
Bleeding  is  most  thorough  when  the  heart  and  respiratory  functions 
remain  in  action  as  long  as  possible.  These  functions  depend  prin- 
cipally on  the  intactness  of  the  medulla  oblongata  with  the  respiratory, 
cardiac,  and  vasomotor  centres,  and  consequently  the  most  satisfactory 
methods  of  killing  are  those  in  which  the  medulla  oblongata  is  not 
injured.  From  a  humane  standpoint  the  withdrawal  of  blood  should 
always  be  preceded  by  stunning  the  animals,  which,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  is  carried  out  in  almost  all  cases  with  the  exception  of  those 
slaughtered  in  accordance  with  the  Jewish  rite.  As  a  result  of  stunning, 
the  excessive  struggles  of  the  animals  are  prevented,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  dangers  to  the  butchers  from  such  struggling  are  also 
averted. 


36 


ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 


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FOOD  ANIMALS 


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38  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  'MEAT  FOOD 

The  following  killing  methods  are  distinguished  as  a  result  of  the 
different  methods  of  stunning: 

Killing  Methods  with  Stunning. — (a)  The  blow  on  the  head  (forehead 
blow)  is  made  with  a  slaughter  ax,  heavy  wooden  club,  or  hammer. 
It  may  be  employed  on  all  food  animals,  and  causes,  when  proficiently 
applied,  an  immediate  insensibility  of  the  animal. 

The  action  of  the  blow  on  the  head  depends  on  the  position  of  the  brain 
in  the  various  animals  and  its  greater  or  lesser  protection  by  the  cranium. 
In  the  horse,  the  conditions  for  stunning  with  the  blow  on  the  head  are  the 
most  favorable,  as  the  brain  is  practically  only  covered  by  the  comparatively 
thin  bone  plates  formed  by  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones.  Therefore,  a  blow 
directed  at  this  point  will  act  directly  on  the  brain.  Similar  conditions  obtain 
in  sheep  and  goats;  in  these  animals,  however,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  strong  roots  of  the  horn  processes  of  the  temporal  bone  considerably 
strengthen  the  cranial  roof,  and  besides  the  effect  of  the  blow  in  sheep  is  also 
diminished  by  the  woolly  covering.  The  brain  in  these  animals  is  more  easily 
reached  from  the  base  of  the  head  than  from  the  forehead.  In  cattle,  as  is 
well  known,  the  frontal  bone  also  forms  the  entire  brain  covering,  which,  on 
account  of  the  strong  development  of  the  frontal  sinuses,  is  divided  into  a 
lateral  and  median  lamella.  The  effect  of  the  blow  is  broken  by  the  frontal 
sinuses,  and  the  farther  the  blow  strikes  from  the  middle  point  the  less  effective 
it  will  prove.  The  proper  point  to  strike  is  situated  where  the  diagonals  from 
the  base  of  the  horns  to  the  opposite  orbital  arches  cross. 

These  anatomical  peculiarities  do  not  interfere  in  calves,  as  the  undeveloped 
soft  skull  does  not  resist  the  blow  to  any  marked  degree.  While  the  roof  of 
the  cranium  in  hogs  is  similar  in  structure  to  that  in  cattle,  due  to  the  promi- 
nent development  of  the  frontal  sinuses,  yet  these  anatomical  relations  play 

no  special  part,    as  the  majority  of  hogs  are 
FIG  1Q  slaughtered  at  a  young  age,  when  the  roof  of 

the  cranium  is  not  very  compact.  Only  in  races 
of  hogs  with  a  strongly  protruding  skull  and 
receding  face  is  the  bony  development  of  the 
skull  very  marked,  and  in  these  the  front  part 
of  the  head  is  frequently  covered  with  thick, 

^^^^^^^  woolly  hair,  which  considerably  diminishes  the 

effect  of  the  blow. 


(b)  The  frontal  blow  with  a  slaughter  ax 
or  bolt  hammer  is  executed  by  the  use  of  a 
short  ax,  to  which  a  round,  chisel-shaped  bolt 
is  fastened,  and  this  is  driven  into  the  brain. 
Head  of  bull  with  slaughter  mask      The  application  of  this  apparatus,  which  in 

general  is  not  to  be  recommended,  requires 
skill  in  sure  hitting  and  much  strength. 

(c)  The  frontal  blow  with  the  application  of  the  so-called  slaughter 
mask.  The  construction  of  this  apparatus  can  be  seen  in  Fig.  10, 
and  is  employed  exclusively  on  cattle. 

The  bolt  is  driven  into  the  brain,  causing  the  animal  to  collapse  immediately. 
Rissling  prefers  a  strong,  hollow  cylinder  to  the  solid  bolt.  Other  slight  changes 
in  the  mask  have  been  undertaken  occasionally.  After  the  removal  of  the 
mask,  as  a  rule,  a  small  piece  of  cane  is  introduced  in  the  opening  of  the  cranium 
in  order  to  destroy  further  the  posterior  portion  of  the  brain.  This  is  also 


FOOD  ANIMALS 


39 


usually  carried  out  in  the  use  of  the  previously  described  apparatus,  which, 
however,  is  absolutely  unnecessary  when  the  bolt  is  driven  at  the  right  place 
into  the  brain.  While  the  convulsive  struggling  which  results  from  the  intro- 
duction of  the  small  piece  of  cane  into  the  brain  has  a  repulsive  effect,  there 
is  total  absence  of  consciousness.  The  statement  of  Dembo,  in  which  he 
expressed  his  doubt  regarding  the  reliability  of  the  slaughter  mask,  may  be 
considered  as  disproved  through  the  statistics  compiled  by  Siedamgrotzky. 


FIG.  11 


FIG.  12 


Vertical  section  through  Klein- 
schmidt's  spring-bolt  apparatus: 
a,  iron  covering;  b,  bolt;  c,  groove; 
d,  spring;  e,  head  piece. 


Vertical  section  through  a  bolt  apparatus,  according  to 
Kogler:  a,  bolt;  b,  groove;  c,  screw  for  the  bolt;  d,  iron 
middle  cylinder;  e,  eye  for  opening  the  wooden  handle. 

FIG.  13 


Head  of  bull  with  shooting  apparatus  attached,  according  to  Staehl-Stoff. 

(d)  The  blow  on  the  forehead  with  the  spring-bolt  apparatus  de- 
signed by  Kleinschmidt,  or  with  the  bolt  apparatus  of  Kogler,  is  used 
for  stunning  hogs  and  sheep  (Figs.  11  and  12). 

(e)  Killing  of  food  animals  with  bullet-shooting  apparatus.     The 
oldest  instrument  belonging  to  this  class  was  originated  by  Siegmund. 
A  similar  apparatus  without  the  leather  mask  has  been  placed  on 
the  market  for  several  years  by  various  firms  according  to  Staehl's 
patent   (Fig.   13).     Lately,  similar  instruments  have  been  made  for 
use  on  hogs  and  small  stock. 


40 


ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 


(/)  Shooting  with  the  shooting-bolt  apparatus,  such  as  those  designed 
by  Flessa,  Liebe,  Schrader,  and  further  with  Behr's  bolt  pistol  (Fig. 
14),  etc.,  which,  by  the  pressure  of  the  gases  from  the  powder  of  an 


FIG.  14 


Behr'a  bolt  pistol  in  section.     (Behr's  Industrial  Company.) 

inflammable  shell,  drives  a  bolt  into  the  brain  in  a  similar  way  as  the 
blow-bolt  apparatus.  Flessa's  bolt-shooting  apparatus  is  very  simple, 
as  the  discharge  occurs  only  on  the  head  of  the  animal  to  be  killed, 


FIG.  15 


Knocking  hammer. 


through  the  ejection  of  the  bolt,  which  extends  for  about  1  cm.,  whereby 
the  other  sharpened  end  of  the  bolt  causes  an  explosion  of  the  strongly 
active  copper  cap.  On  account  of  the  slight  danger  from  the  bolt- 


FIG.  16 


Bolt-shooting  apparatus  by  abattoir  director  Flessa,  longitudinal  section.      (Hauptner,  Berlin  ) 

shooting  apparatus,  they  should  be  preferred  to  the  bullet-shooting 
apparatuses. 

(g)  The  blow  on  the  base  of  the  head  or  on  the  forehead  is  carried 
out  with  an  ax,  cleaver,  club,  or  with  the  end  of  a  heavy  hammer 


FOOD  ANIMALS  41 

(Fig.  15).  The  stunning  results  from  the  contusion  of  the  brain.  This 
method  is  the  simplest  for  large-horned  or  aged  sheep  and  goats,  and 
is  the  principal  method  adopted  in  the  United  States  for  stunning 
animals. 

Slaughtering  Method  without  Stunning.  —  (a)  In  pithing,  a  strong  knife  is 
stuck  between  the  atlas  and  occipital  bone  and  the  medulla  oblongata  is  thereby 
severed  or  injured.  The  animals  collapse  immediately.  They  are,  however, 
not  stunned,  but  only  helpless,  as  conscious  movement  is  arrested.  Uncon- 
sciousness only  takes  place  when,  after  subsequent  bleeding,  the  resulting 
cerebral  anemia  has  reached  a  certain  degree.  The  bleeding  of  such  "pithed" 
animals  is  sometimes  unsatisfactory,  owing  to  the  injury  of  the  vasomotor 
centres,  also  of  the  heart  and  respiratory  centres  in  the  medulla  oblongata. 
Pithing,  therefore,  should  be  discarded  from  a  humane  as  well  as  from  a  prac- 
tical standpoint. 

The  "blow  on  the  base  of  the  head"  has  the  disadvantage  of  pithing  only 
when  the  blow  has  not  been  sufficiently  strong  to  produce  a  contusion  of  the 
brain. 

(6)  "Schachten"  (from  the  Hebrew  verb  "schachat,"  to  draw; 
to  draw  the  knife  to  and  from)  is  the  oldest  slaughtering  method,  and 
is  applied  by  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans  to  cattle  and  small  stock. 

For  this  purpose  the  animals  are  secured  and  thrown,  and  then  follows  the 
cutting  of  the  throat  with  a  very  sharp  knife  with  a  wide  blade.  The  latter 
is  performed  by  an  especially  appointed  member  of  the  faith.  Death  of  the 
animals  occurs  through  the  slow  loss  of  blood  from  the  large  vessels  of  the 
neck.  The  throwing  and  securing  of  large  and  strong  cattle  is  frequently 
associated  with  difficulties  and  dangers,  and  accompanied  generally  by  con- 
siderable cruelty  to  the  animal.  Since  the  middle  of  the  last  century  there 
has  been  much  argument  regarding  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the 
Jewish  method  of  slaughter  from  a  humanitarian,  physiological,  and  hygienic 
standpoint,  and  also  as  to  its  authority  from  a  religious  consideration,  which 
will  not  be  further  discussed  here.  It  should  only  be  mentioned  that  this  method 
of  slaughter  without  previously  stunning  the  animal  was  prohibited  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  in  Switzerland,  a  regulation  which,  from  the  humani- 
tarian standpoint,  should  receive  the  fullest  approval.  Further  information  may 
be  obtained  in  the  extensive  works  and  publications  on  this  subject. 

For  diminishing  the  cruelty  in  throwing  animals,  various  apparatuses  have 
been  constructed,  which,  however,  only  slightly  improve  the  repulsiveness 
of  the  Jewish  method.  This  is  also  true  of  the  equipment  now  in  use  for  the 
stretching  of  the  neck  and  head  by  the  so-called  head  holder  before  "Schachten." 

It  should  also  be  mentioned  that  experiments  have  been  made  to  kill  animals 
with  electricity  (Bockelmann) . 

To  improve  the  method  of  securing  hogs  for  stunning,  Renger  constructed 
a  slaughtering  machine,  which  can  be  utilized  to  only  a  very  limited  extent. 

For  acquiring  steadiness  in  taking  aim  on  the  part  of  the  butcher  apprentices, 
various  apparatuses  have  been  constructed.  They  are  even  supplied  with 
an  indicator  registering  the  force  of  the  blow,  and  are  maintained  by  the 
butchers'  associations  of  larger  cities.  On  these  machines  the  apprentices 
receive  their  instruction  and  practice  in  striking. 

Bleeding. — Extraction  of  the  blood  is  accomplished  in  large  stock 
and  hogs  by  cutting  the  bloodvessels  at  the  entrance  of  the  thoracic 
cavity;  in  small  stock  by  sticking  in  the  neck  or  cutting  the  throat. 
The  latter  is  also  sometimes  employed  in  cattle,  especially  when 


42  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

slaughtering  them  in  accordance  with  the  Jewish  rite  (Schachten). 
As  the  keeping  qualities  of  meat  depend  considerably  on  thorough 
bleeding,  this  should  be  as  complete  as  possible.  It  depends  on  the 
following  conditions : 

(a)  The  health  of  the  animal  considerably  influences  thorough  bleeding, 
as  all  severe  affections  weaken  the  vitality,  which  involves  the  action  of  the 
heart,  lungs,  and  muscles,  thus  influencing  the  driving  out  of  the  blood.  Bleed- 
ing is  retarded  especially  in  febrile  conditions,  also  in  cases  of  severe  indiges- 
tion, acute  disturbances  of  the  portal  circulation,  and  severe  lung  and  heart 
affections.  As  a  rule,  animals  so  affected  bleed  out  very  poorly. 

(6)  Sufficient  rest  of  the  animals  before  slaughter  is  also  essential  to  assure 
a  thorough  bleeding.  Animals  that  are  excited  or  are  thoroughly  tired  usually 
bleed  out  insufficiently. 

(c)  Strong  and  long-continued  respiratory  and  cardiac  action,  as  well  as 
energetic  convulsions  of  the  body  muscles,  favor  thorough  bleeding  for  reasons 
that  are  self-explanatory.     As  these  functions  are  regulated  by  the  central 
nervous  system,  and  especially  by  the  medulla  oblongata,  thorough  bleeding 
depends  to  no  small  degree  upon  the — 

(d)  Slaughtering  and  stunning  method,  which  favorably  influences  bleeding 
when  the  medulla  oblongata  remains  intact. 

(e)  The  performance  of  sticking  or  cutting  considerably  promotes  or  retards 
the  bleeding.     When  thoracic  bleeding  is  performed  the  heart  must  not  be 
injured,  and  also  bleeding  into  the  thoracic  cavity  must  be  prevented  (over- 
sticking),  as  compression  of  the  heart  and  lungs  takes  place  through  the  quick 
accumulation  of  blood  in  the  chest  cavity. 

The  anemic  state  of  the  arteries  and  large  and  medium  vein  trunks 
is  not  the  only  indication  of  thorough  bleeding,  but  a  certain  dryness 
of  the  parenchymatous  organs  and  especially  of  the  muscles  is  even 
more  important  in  this  respect.  Only  a  few  drops  of  blood  can  be 
obtained  on  pressure  of  the  cut  surfaces,  and  only  in  the  smallest  veins 
can  there  be  found  traces  of  blood. 

The  quantity  of  blood,  which  averages  TV  °f  the  body  weight,  natu- 
rally cannot  be  totally  abstracted;  however,  the  larger  portion  of 
it  may  be  withdrawn.  The  quantity  of  the  blood  depends  on  the 
sex,  size,  and  nutritive  state,  and  on  the  above-mentioned  conditions, 
which  influence  the  bleeding  of  the  slaughtered  animals.  The  quantity 
of  the  withdrawn  blood  amounts  in  cattle  to  15  to  25  liters;  in  horses, 
20  to  30;  in  hogs,  2  to  3;  in  small  stock,  1^  liters.  In  hogs  the  quantity 
of  blood  is  considerably  diminished  with  the  increase  of  fat  on  the 
animal. 

Various  experiments  have  been  made  regarding  the  quantity  of  blood  drawn 
from  slaughtered  animals.  Heissler  found  the  quantity  of  blood  from  horses 
to  be  3.93  to  9  per  cent,  of  their  body  weights;  in  cows,  4.02  to  5.75  per  cent.; 
in  calves,  4.4  to  6.65  per  cent.;  in  sheep,  4.37  to  7.56  per  cent.;  in  hogs,  1.45 
to  5.74  per  cent.  According  to  Goltz  the  quantity  of  blood  amounted  in  cattle 
to  3.1  to  3.3  per  cent,  of  the  body  weight;  in  calves,  4.9  to  5  per  cent.;  in  sheep, 
4.1  to  4.3  per  cent.  At  the  same  time  Goltz  established  that  the  method  of 
killing — whether  the  animal  was  slaughtered  in  accordance  with  the  Jewish 
rite  or  whether  the  withdrawal  of  blood  is  preceded  by  stunning  —  has  no 
influence  on  the  quantity  of  blood  flowing  from  the  animal.  The  same  results 
were  obtained  by  Falk,  who  also  believes  that  cows  possess  a  larger  quantity 
of  blood  than  heifers,  or  even  bulls  and  steers.  Fjelstrup  determined  the 


FOOD  ANIMALS  43 

quantity  of  blood  by  washing  out  the  bloodvessels  with  salt-water  infusions, 
according  to  a  special  formula. 

The  blood  from  animals  slaughtered  by  cutting  the  throat  is,  as  a  rule, 
polluted  with  the  vomited  contents  of  the  stomach,  and,  therefore,  cannot 
be  utilized  for  human  food. 

Further  Dressing  of  Carcasses. — Regarding  the  further  course  of 
commercial  slaughter  the  following  brief  notations  may  contain  some 
information.  [The  extent  of  the  dressing  and  cutting  with  considera- 
tion for  the  intended  postmortem  inspection  is  established  by  the 
Federal  Regulations.] 

Cattle  and  horses  are  partly  skinned  while  on  the  floor.  This  is  then  followed 
by  the  removal  of  the  feet  in  the  carpal  and  tarsal  joints,  and  of  the  head. 
(At  this  time  the  horns  of  cattle  are  chopped  off  in  order  to  remain  on  the 
skin.)  The  abdomen  is  cut  for  a  short  distance  along  the  median  line  for  the 
removal  of  the  connected  masses  of  fat  of  the  mesentery.  After  the  penis, 
scrotum,  or  udder  is  cut  off,  the  breastbone  and  the  pelvis  sawed,  the  latter 
in  the  symphysis,  the  animal  is  hoisted  with  the  aid  of  a  beam  which  is  inserted 
through  an  opening  made  between  the  tendo-Achillis  and  the  metatarsus 
bone,  or  by  hooks  which  are  inserted  into  the  same  openings.  The  carcass 
is  then  further  skinned  and  finally  eviscerated,  leaving  only  the  kidneys.  In 
the  process  of  evisceration  (gutting)  the  uterus  and  bladder  are  first  removed, 
followed  by  the  intestines  and  mesentery;  then  the  stomach  (or  stomachs), 
with  the  adherent  spleen,  then  the  liver,  and  finally  the  heart,  lungs,  and  trachea. 
In  some  places  the  liver  and  parts  of  the  diaphragm  are  removed,  together 
with  the  thoracic  viscera  (United  States) .  From  the  head  the  brain  is  removed 
and  the  tongue  is  separated  from  the  connection  with  the  lower  jaw,  in  such 
a  way  that  the  buccal  and  laryngeal  cavities  become  entirely  exposed.  With 
hogs,  which  are  subjected  to  so-called  scalding  in  water  at  60°  to  70°  C.,  the 
hair  and  epidermis  are  loosened,  which  may  then  be  removed  by  scraping. 
After  washing  and  hanging  by  the  flexor  pedis  tendons  of  the  hind  legs,  the 
evisceration  takes  place.  Only  the  kidneys  are  left  in  place,  provided  they 
do  not  come  out  with  the  removal  of  the  retroperitoneal  layer  of  fat  (leaf  lard). 
Stomach  and  intestines  remain  in  their  natural  connection;  also  the  liver, 
with  the  thoracic  viscera,  together  with  the  trachea,  esophagus,  and  tongue. 
In  France  the  bristles  of  the  hog  are  removed  by  singeing.  [Singeing  is  followed 
in  the  United  States  for  certain  export  hogs.J  At  present  this  custom  appears 
to  be  declining,  and  is  gradually  being  replaced  by  scalding.  As  singeing  makes 
the  examination  of  the  skin  difficult,  it  should  be  considered  in  Germany  in 
accordance  with  the  meat-inspection  regulation  as  a  procedure  to  which  the 
hogs  should  not  be  subjected  without  further  consideration. 

Small  stock  are  skinned  after  the  removal  of  the  feet,  partly  while  lying 
on  a  rack  and  partly  when  hung  up.  They  are  then  eviscerated  in  the  same 
manner  as  hogs;  the  kidneys,  sometimes  the  liver  and  spleen,  as  well  as  the 
thoracic  viscera,  are  left  in  place.  The  inflation  of  carcasses  of  calves  and  sheep 
by  blowing  air  into  the  subcutis  with  the  mouth,  bellows,  or  air  pump  is  not 
as  frequently  carried  out  at  present  as  formerly,  and  this  is  also  true  of  the 
inflation  of  the  lungs  with  air.  Meat  which  shows  changes  through  the  blow- 
ing must  be  declared  as  unfit  for  human  consumption.  Frequently  calves 
are  left  with  their  hides  on  for  reasons  of  cleanliness  in  transportation.  As 
a  rule,  cattle  and  hogs  are  split  into  halves  through  their  vertebral  columns 
immediately  after  slaughter,  while  small  stock  are  left  intact  for  the  time 
being.  Until  the  carcasses  are  cooled  no  further  cutting  takes  place.  At  this 
time  each  side  of  the  beef  is  transversely  cut  and  divided  into  a  fore-  and  hind- 
quarter,  by  which  procedure  the  last  3  or  4  ribs  are,  as  a  rule,  cut  off  with  the 
hind-quarter.  The  further  cutting  of  the  dressed  meat  depends  on  the  com- 
mercial customs,  which  vary  not  only  in  the  various  species  of  animals,  but 


44  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

also  in  different  countries  and  localities.  For  further  particulars  on  this  sub- 
ject, as  well  as  the  commercial  designation  of  the  various  parts  of  the  dressed 
carcass,  see  page  47. 

In  relation  to  the  further  manipulations  in  the  slaughter  of  animals  for 
Jews  it  should  be  briefly  mentioned  that  a  certain  examination  of  food  animals 
as  to  health  is  made.  In  cattle  the  "Schachter, "  after  the  abdomen  has  been 
opened,  and  before  the  breastbone  has  been  divided,  places  his  arm  into  the 
thoracic  cavity  through  an  opening  in  the  diaphragm  and  explores  the  pleura 
for  adhesions,  etc.  After  the  removal  of  the  internal  organs  from  the  body 
their  further  examination  is  made  principally  with  the  eye,  but  whether  the 
carcass  should  be  considered  as  pure  and  proper  food  for  Israelites  (kosher) 
depends  especially  upon  the  palpation  of  the  lungs  for  abnormalities.  Besides, 
certain  lesions  of  the  other  viscera  are  also  considered.  In  case  the  slaughtered 
animal  cannot  be  passed  for  food  in  accordance  with  the  ritual  requirements, 
it  is  declared  as  unclean  (trepha).  The  kosher  meat  is  marked  for  the  benefit 
of  the  consumers  with  the  Hebrew  lettering  ItfiO  and  frequently  also  it  is 
sealed  or  stamped  with  the  date  of  the  slaughter.  As  certain  large  bloodvessels, 
certain  strips  of  fat,  tendinous  parts,  etc.,  should  not  be  consumed,  these  parts 
are  removed  by  the  "  Schachter, "  and  designated  as  "  Triebern"  and  "  Porschen" 
of  the  meat.  As  this  would  result  in  considerable  cutting  if  applied  to  the 
hind-quarters,  and  consequently  would  diminish  the  value  of  the  meat,  they 
are  not  "porsched,"  and  are,  therefore,  not  eaten  by  religious  Jews.  Further 
particulars  of  the  Jewish  ritual  slaughter  can  be  found  in  Goltz's  History  of 
Meat  Food. 

Emergency  Slaughter. — The  form  of  slaughtering  which  is  every- 
where designated  as  emergency  slaughter  deserves  special  mention, 
and,  furthermore,  requires  particular  attention  from  the  standpoint 
of  sanitary  police. 

Emergency  slaughter  involves  injured  and  sick  animals  whose  life 
appears  to  be  more  or  less  threatened,  and  in  order  to  endeavor  to 
save  the  meat  for  human  food  they  are  hastily  slaughtered.  While 
there  are  various  diseases  which  occasion  an  emergency  slaughter, 
they  may  not  affect  the  meat  so  as  to  render  it  unwholesome.  Others 
again  are  of  a  doubtful  character,  and  have  endangered  the  life  and 
health  of  numerous  people.  This  was  proved  in  a  long  series  of  epi- 
demics which  resulted  from  meat  poisoning,  and  Bellinger  rightly 
claims  that  at  least  four-fifths  of  these  outbreaks  were  in  connection 
with  emergency  slaughter. 

The  principal  causes  for  emergency  slaughter  in  cattle,  as  shown 
by  experience  and  also  by  the  tabulated  statistics  of  A.  Maier,  are 
affections  of  the  digestive  and  sexual  organs,  and  infectious  diseases. 
In  small  stock  and  hogs  the  latter  diseases  play  the  most  important 
part,  while  in  hogs,  swine  erysipelas  is  frequently  the  cause  for  emer- 
gency slaughter. 

According  to  Lydtin's  statistics  the  danger  from  meat  produced 
by  emergency  slaughter,  when  compared  with  the  meat  obtained 
by  commercial  killing,  is  80  times  greater  in  cattle,  12  times  in  calves, 
100  times  in  sheep,  90  times  in  goats,  211  times  in  hogs,  and  3  times 
in  horses. 

Although  such  statistics  sufficiently  indicate  the  general  sanitary 
importance  of  emergency  slaughter,  this  is  further  increased  when  it 
is  considered  that  the  emergency  killings,  as  Ostertag  rightly  remarks, 


FOOD  ANIMALS  45. 

"include  not  always  the  typical  affections,  but  in  many  instances 
diseases  of  unknown  origin  (cryptogenetic  sepsis)."  For  these  reasons 
the  judging  of  animals  slaughtered  in  emergency  is  in '  many  cases 
associated  with  difficulties,  which,  even  for  the  scientifically  trained 
veterinary  inspector,  frequently  prove  a  hard  test  of  his  knowledge 
and  conscientiousness.  Owing  to  the  dangers  of  emergency  slaughter 
from  a  sanitary  standpoint,  all  efforts  for  years  were  directed  toward 
the  subjection  of  these  animals  under  all  conditions  to  a  veterinary 
inspection.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  imperial  meat-inspection 
law  shows  a  flaw  on  this  important  point,  which  might  easily  prove 
serious.  In  accordance  with  this  law  the  inspection  may  be  omitted 
if  the  animals  are  slaughtered  for  home  consumption,  and  it  frequently 
happens  that  many  instances  of  emergency  slaughter  are  carried  out 
on  just  such  occasions.  In  this  law  the  limitation  is  made  that  inspec- 
tion may  be  omitted  only  in  those  animals  which  before  or  after  slaughter 
show  no  signs  of  disease  that  would  render  the  meat  unwholesome. 
This  regulation  has,  however,  only  a  limited  value,  as  in  some  cases 
an  important  disease  might  not  show  striking  appearances  in  the  eyes 
of  a  layman;  then  again  unscrupulous  stock  owners  may  either  dis- 
regard the  requirements  of  the  law  altogether,  or  in  case  of  trouble 
assert  that  the  symptoms  of  disease  manifested  by  the  animals  were 
not  such  as  to  warrant  the  opinion  that  the  meat  was  unfit  for  con- 
sumption. While  the  animals  slaughtered  for  home  consumption, 
and,  therefore  uninspected,  cannot  be  commercially  utilized,  the 
probable  affections  should  be  considered  which  might  result  from  par- 
taking of  infected  meat  by  the  family  and  servants.  Besides,  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  frequently  the  meat  of  home-slaughtered  animals 
is  openly  or  indirectly  brought  to  market,  or  is  worked  up  for  this 
purpose. 

For  these  reasons  it  would  be  very  desirable  for  the  governments 
of  the  allied  states  of  Germany  to  avail  themselves  of  the  authority 
offered  them  by  law,  and  to  provide  compulsory  inspections  even  for 
home  slaughtering,  as  is  the  case  at  present  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony 
and  other  states. 

By  cold  slaughtering  is  understood  in  butchers'  circles  thos^e  fraudulent 
manipulations  which  aim  to  utilize  carcasses  of  dead  unslaughtered  animals, 
as  if  they  had  been  slaughtered,  by  performing  the  sticking  or  cutting  post 
mortem.  The  absence  of  bloodj^  infiltration  of  the  edges  of  the  wound  and 
other  manifestations  make  the  detection  easy  for  the  expert. 

Official  Regulations  Concerning  Slaughter. — For  manifold  reasons  it  would 
be  desirable  to  have  the  appendix  of  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  contain 
uniform  regulations  for  the  slaughter  of  animals.  At  present  the  following 
decrees  are  in  effect: 

In  Prussia  the  ministerial  decrees  of  December  16,  1886,  and  March  25,  1900, 
contain  detailed  specifications  regarding  the  procedure  in  the  slaughter  of 
animals.  They  also  contain  the  corresponding  police  regulations  which  exist 
in  the  various  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  Government  District,  Koblentz 
pithing  is  prohibited  by  the  police  regulations  of  September  23,  1891. 

In  Bavaria  the  procedure  of  the  slaughtering  of  food  animals  was  regulated 
by  the  order  of  the  State  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  February  19,  1890. 


46  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

In  Saxony  the  decree  of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  of  March  21,  1892, 
relative  to  the  stunning  of  food  animals  prescribes  that  in  the  slaughter  of 
all  animals,  with  the  exception  of  fowls,  stunning  must  precede  bleeding. 

By  the  order  of  May  23,  1891,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony-Meiningen  only  the 
"Schachten"  is  exempted  from  the  decree  which  prescribes  that  stunning 
must  precede  bleeding. 

The  following  regulations  affect  the  "Schachten,"  in  accordance  with  the 
Jewish  rite : 

In  Prussia  an  order  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  Religion,  and  Education, 
of  January  14,  1889,  forbids  all  unnecessary  cruelty  to  animals,  and  prescribes 
special  regulations  for  a  careful  throwing  of  the  animals  and  safe  securing  of 
the  head,  etc. 

In  Bavaria  a  similar  decree  on  this  subject  was  issued  by  the  State  Ministry 
of  the  Interior,  July  12,  1889. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  the  Schachten  is  prohibited  in  accordance  with 
the  above  decree  for  that  State,  if  it  is  not  preceded  by  stunning. 

In  Baden  the  regulations  regarding  the  Jewish  method  of  slaughter  are 
contained  in  the  Ministerial  decree  of  March  29,  1888. 

In  Meiningen  a  proclamation  of  May  29,  1891,  prescribes  the  avoidance 
of  unnecessary  cruelties  to  animals  in  Schachten,  based  upon  the  above- 
mentioned  decree  of  Prussia. 

In  Switzerland  the  prohibition  of  Schachten  was  accepted  by  the  State  con- 
stitution after  submitting  the  question  to  general  vote,  which  resulted  187,000 
against  and  112,000  for  the  Schachten,  and  11|  against  and  10^  for  in  the 
votes  by  cantons. 

[The  slaughtering  methods  employed  for  cattle  in  the  United  States 
are  preceded,  with  the  exception  of  those  selected  for  Hebrew  consump- 
tion, by  stunning  which  is  carried  out  with  a  long-handled  hammer. 
While  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  stunning  of  the  animals  with  the 
various  above-described  apparatuses  has  some  advantages,  yet  such 
methods  could  not  be  satisfactorily  carried  out  in  the  large  slaughtering 
centres  of  this  country,  as  a  large  percentage  of  the  food  animals  are 
range  cattle  which  have  never  been  accustomed  to  being  handled,  and 
therefore  the  attachment  of  an  apparatus  to  them  or  even  approach- 
ing them  for  that  purpose  would  be  not  only  impracticable,  but  an 
impossibility  in  most  cases.  Besides  the  construction  of  the  killing 
pens  and  the  skill  of  the  men  employed  for  this  particular  work  of 
"knocking/"'  render  this  method  perfectly  satisfactory  and  without 
any  unnecessary  cruelty,  as  it  occurs  only  exceptionally  that  the  animal 
is  not  completely  stunned  with  a  single,  well-directed  blow.] 

Utilization  of  Food  Animals. — As  all  parts  of  a  slaughtered  animal 
are  utilized  to  the  best  advantage  as  human  food,  it  is  aimed  to  effect 
this  utilization  to  the  greatest  extent  possible.  All  parts  not  suitable  for 
food  are  designated  as  offal.  While  in  ordinary  usage  most  of  the  edible 
parts  of  food  animals  are  erroneously  included  in  the  word  meat,  yet  in 
commerce  and  trade  the  term  meat,  in  a  narrow  sense,  includes  only 
the  skeletal  muscles  with  the  organically  connected  parts  (bones,  fat, 
tendons,  bloodvessels,  nerves,  lymph  glands,  etc.),  while  the  fat,  the 
blood,  and  all  viscera  utilizable  for  human  food  are  not  considered.  All 
these  portions  are  partly  marketed  in  their  fresh  state,  partly  again 
worked  up,  and  naturally  possess  great  extremes  of  value, 


FOOD  ANIMALS  47 

Meat  in  a  Narrow  Sense. — The  principal  value  of  food  animals  lies 
in  the  meat  proper,1  namely,  in  the  striated  or  skeletal  muscles,  which, 
in  accordance  with  their  location  and  their  coarse  anatomical  structure, 
possess  different  values  as  human  food.  In  this  valuation  the  actual 
nutritive  worth  of  the  meat  is  generally  not  considered  (Chapter  II), 
but  more  depends  on  its  usefulness  and  flavor.  The  latter  is  principally 
based  upon  the  firmness  and  tenderness  of  the  muscle  fibers,  the  arrange- 
ment and  contents  of  the  connective  tissue,  the  deficiency  or  richness 
of  fat,  and  the  amount  of  the  extractive  matter  on  which  the  taste 
of  the  meat  depends.  As  these  relations  vary  considerably  in  the 
different  regions  of  the  animal  body,  the  sale  value  of  the  meat  of  certain 
parts  varies  likewise.  This  is  also  influenced,  however,  by  fondness 
for  certain  cuts  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Corresponding  with 
these  conditions  various  meat  qualities  are  distinguished  in  all  animals, 
and  the  regional  limits,  valuations,  and  designations  differ  consider- 
ably in  the  various  countries  and  territories. 

The  following  attempted  division  of  the  quality  limitation  of  meat  of  food 
animals  is  only  considered  for  the  principal  portions  as  they  are  distinguished 
by  the  trade  all  over  Germany,  and  as  they  are  comprehended  regarding  their 
valuations. 

[Meat  Cuts  in  United  States. — In  the  United  States  the  different 
meat  cuts  from  the  various  food  animals  are  sold  in  accordance  with 
a  certain  classification,  and  a  considerable  variation  exists  in  the  market 
value  of  the  meat  from  the  different  parts  of  the  animal.  But,  inas- 
much as  there  is  no  distinct  ratio  as  to  the  market  value  of  these  various 
meat  cuts,  it  will  be  only  necessary  to  name  them,  indicating  also  their 
location  on  the  carcass  in  the  accompanying  illustrations:] 

Beef  (Fig.  17). — First  quality:  Tenderloin  (M.  iliopsoas,  invisible 
on  the  cut),  sirloin  (English  roast),  rump. 

Second  quality:  Double  round  (the  median  part  of  the  round  is 
not  visible  on  the  cut),  thick  flank,  best  ribs,  chuck  (only  part  of  the 
same). 

Third  quality:  Shoulder,  brisket  (partly  covered  by  the  shoulder), 
chuck,  plate,  neck. 

Fourth  quality:    Short  ribs,  flank,  shank,  shin,  head,  and  tail. 

[In  the  United  States  the  usual  beef  cuts  are:  a,  shank;  6,  round; 
c,  rump;  d,  sirloin;  e,  porterhouse;  /,  rib;  o,  flank;  ra,  plate;  h,  chuck; 
/,  brisket;  g,  shoulder;  i,  neck;  k,  shank.] 

Veal  (Fig.  18). — First  quality:    Leg  (cutlet),  loin  roast,  chops. 

Second  quality:  Shoulder,  chuck,  breast  (partly  covered  by  the 
shoulder). 

Third  quality:    Neck,  flank,  shank,  shin. 

Fourth  quality:     Head  and  feet. 

1  For  the  morphology  and  chemistry  of  meat,  also  the  peculiarities  of  the  meat  of  various  food 
animals,  see  Chapter  II. 


48 


ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 


[In  the  United  States  the  veal  cuts  are:  b,  leg;   d,  loin;  c,  flank 
e,  breast;  g,  shoulder;  i,  neck.] 


FIG.  17 


Side  of  beef  allowing  th§  commercial 


FOOD  ANIMALS 


49 


Mutton  (Fig.  19). — First  quality:    Leg,  loin. 

Second  quality:     Shoulder. 

Third  quality:    Ribs,  partly  covered  by  shoulder;  breast,  flank,  neck. 

Fourth  quality:     Head. 


FIQ.  18 


Side  of  veal  showing  the  com- 
mercial cuts. 


FIG.  19 


FIG.  20 


Side  of  mutton  showing  the  Side  of  hog  showing  the  coin- 

commercial  cuts.  mercial  cuts. 


[In  the  United  States  the  cuts  are:    a,  leg;  b,  loin;  c,  back  and  rib; 
d,  breast;  /,  shoulder;  h,  neck.] 

Pork   (Fig.   20). — First  quality:     Leg   (ham),   loin   (chops,   cutlet, 
roast) . 

Second  quality:    Neck  piece,  shoulder  (shoulder  ham). 

Third  quality :     Short  ribs,  belly,  shanks. 

Fourth  quality:    Head  with  jowl  (cheek),  snout,  feet. 

[In  the  United   States  the  cuts  are:     c,  ham;   d,  loin;  e,  belly;  g, 
shoulder;  i,  head.] 
4 


50  ORIGIN  AND  SOURCE  OF  MEAT  FOOD 

In  the  horse  and  dog  no  special  classes  of  meat  are  distinguished 
as  a  rule;  nevertheless,  in  horses  certain  parts  (tenderloin  and  tongue) 
command  a  higher  price  in  Germany  than  others. 

The  tongue  of  all  animals  and  the  udder  of  cattle  are  sold  as  meat. 
When  meat  is  not  sold  in  a  raw  or  pickled  state,  with  or  without  the 
bones,  etc.,  it  is  worked  up  for  the  various  meat  products  (see  Chapter 

in). 

Fat. — The  fat  which  is  obtained  from  food  animals  in  coherent 
masses  is  utilized  for  food  purposes  either  in  a  raw  or  rendered  state. 
The  term  bacon  is  applied  to  the  deposition  of  fat  in  hogs,  with  or 
without  the  skin,  which  lies  between  the  skin  and  the  muscular  meat, 
especially  on  the  back  and  on  the  side  of  the  body;  it  may  also  be 
intermixed  with  thin  muscular  layers.  In  commerce,  especially  in 
North  America,  the  following  varieties  of  bacon  are  distinguished: 

1.  Short-clear,  a  side  of  the  hog  between  the  hind  shank  and  the 
anterior  half  of  the  shoulder,  from  which  the  bones  have  been  removed. 

2.  Long-clear,  that  boneless  half  of  a  hog  which  lies  between  the 
hind  shank  and  the  head,  from  which  the  lean  portion  of  the  loin  has 
been  cut  out. 

3.  Rib  belly,  the  side  of  a  hog  consisting  of  the  hind  and  lower  ribs, 
which  generally  are  not  removed,   and  of  the  corresponding  lower 
portion  of  the  belly. 

4.  Short  fat-backs,  the  fat  which  lies  on  the  back  and  side  of  the 
body  over  the  larger  muscles  and  over  the  ribs;  they  are  generally  cut 
into  elongated  quadrangular  pieces  and   are  very  frequently  inter- 
mixed with  the  muscular  layers. 

5.  Long  fat-backs  are  short  fat-backs,  to  which  the  fat  lying  on  the 
side  of  the  neck  is  added. 

Those  pieces  of  fat  and  trimmings  which  are  not  suitable  for  sale 
in  the  shop  are  melted  for  lard,  or  are  conveyed  to  soap,  grease,  and 
other  factories,  where  they  are  utilized  in  the  industrial  arts.  For 
further  information  on  this  subject  see  Chapter  III. 

Blood. — It  is  principally  the  blood  of  hogs  that  is  worked  up  for 
sausage,  while  the  blood  from  other  animals  is  used  for  this  purpose 
only  in  rare  cases. 

Albumen  was  formerly  made  from  blood  offal,  but  its  production  is  now 
diminishing.  Recently  efforts  have  been  directed  toward  utilizing  the  dried 
and  ground  blood  for  fertilizing  and  cattle-feeding  purposes,  since  the  high 
nitrogenous  content  of  the  pulverized  blood,  12  to  18  per  cent.,  makes  it  very 
adaptable.  Small  concerns  usually  dispose  of  the  unused  blood  with  the  manure 
and  other  offal. 

Viscera. — The  heart,  liver,  lungs,  kidneys,  spleen,  brain,  and  thymus 
gland  of  calves  (sweetbread)  are  sold  in  their  fresh  state  or  they  are 
worked  up  for  sausage  or  other  meat  products. 

The  stomach  of  hogs  is  used  for  sausage  coverings;  the  stomachs 
of  cattle  are  sold  after  scalding  and  removal  of  the  epithelium,  as  the 
so-called  tripe,  or  are  utilized  to  a  limited  extent  in  ordinary  kinds 


FOOD  ANIMALS  51 

of  sausage.  Stomach  and  intestines  of  calves  are  consumed  as  "calf- 
ruffle."  The  stomachs  of  sheep  are  used  either  for  manufacturing 
sausage  or  for  food  purposes.  The  stomach  of  calves  yields  also  the 
rennet  ferment  for  manufacturing  cheese.  The  intestinal  canals  of 
cattle  and  hogs  serve  as  sausage  coverings  after  they  have  been  scraped 
and  thoroughly  cleaned.  In  a  similar  way,  but  to  a  limited  extent, 
the  small  intestines  of  sheep  are  employed;  otherwise  they  are  utilized 
for  the  manufacture  of  violin  strings.  The  serous  membrane  of  the 
cecum  of  cattle  is  used  as  the  so-called  "goldbeater  skins."  The 
bladders  of  cattle  and  hogs  are  utilized  for  sausage  coverings. 

It  should  be  remarked  in  passing  that  certain  organs,  especially 
the  thyroids,  ovaries,  as  well  as  testicles,  bone  marrow,  and  adrenal 
capsules,  are  used  in  the  preparation  of  therapeutic  remedies,  which 
are  extensively  employed  in  human  medicine. 

Offal. — The  most  important  constituent  of  food  animals  belonging 
in  this  class  is  the  skin,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  hog  skin,  is 
worked  up  into  leather. 

The  latter  serves  for  this  purpose  only  in  exceptional  cases  (boar, 
old  hogs),  as  it  is  otherwise  sold  with  the  meat,  remains  on  the  bacon, 
or  is  mixed  in  the  filling  of  various  kinds  of  sausage.  This  is  also  done 
with  the  skin  of  the  heads  of  calves,  and  exceptionally  with  the  skin 
of  the  heads  of  young  cattle.  Besides,  the  skin  of  the  head  of  cattle, 
especially  of  the  lips  and  muzzle,  as  well  as  the  ears,  is  worked  up 
for  food.  The  utilization  of  cattle  and  calf  skin  for  sausage,  with 
the  exception  of  the  parts  above  mentioned,  is  only  permitted  under 
declaration.  From  the  bones,  which  are  not  sold  with  the  meat,  and 
which,  in  well-fattened  cattle  amount  to  15.1  to  15.4  per  cent,  of  the 
dressed  weight,  the  marrow  is  extracted  for  various  purposes,  but  that 
from  the  lower  bones  of  the  legs  is  especially  worked  up  for  neat's 
foot  oil.  Otherwise  the  offal  bones  are  converted  into  glue  and  bone- 
meal  in  factories,  while  the  long  bones  are  also  used  for  industrial 
purposes.  The  same  applies  to  the  horns  of  cattle.  Tendinous  and 
cartilaginous  tissues  are  utilized  in  glue  factories. 

Brushes  are  made  from  the  better  hog  bristles,  while  the  poorer 
qualities  are  used  for  minor  purposes.  Hoofs  and  claws,  as  well  as 
inferior  horns,  are  worked  into  fertilizer. 

The  genital  organs  serve  as  dog  food,  and  other  appropriate  offal 
is  also  beneficially  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  abusive  utilization  of  the  sexual  organs,  especially  the  testicle 
and  uterus,  for  food  purposes  could  be  remedied  by  condemning  these 
parts  during  meat  inspection.  However,  the  present  meat-inspection 
regulations  give  no  authority  for  such  action. 

The  bile,  which  is  collected  at  some  places,  is  used  in  the  cleaning 
of  clothes  and  also  for  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

The  contents  of  the  stomachs  of  ruminants  and  hogs  are  also  used 
mixed  with  blood  or  molasses,  for  the  preparation  of  animal  food. 


CHAPTER    II 

MORPHOLOGY  AND   CHEMISTRY  OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  TISSUES 
AND  ORGANS  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

THE  morphology  and  chemical  properties  of  meat  and  its  constituents 
should  be  mentioned  here,  since  they  are  of  importance  in  the  examina- 
tion of  meat  and  in  determining  its  significance  as  human  food. 


MEAT    PROPER   AND   ITS    CONSTITUENTS 

Muscles.— Of  the  three  kinds  of  muscles — the  striated,  non-striated, 
and  heart  muscle — only  the  first,  which  is  bought  and  consumed  as 
meat  proper  or  muscle  meat,  comes  under  consideration  here.  The 
tissues  which  are  in  natural  connection  with  the  muscle  proper  (fat, 
connective,  elastic,  nerve,  bone  tissues),  and  organs  (blood  and  lymph 
vessels,  lymph  glands,  etc.),  are  also  included.  According  to  Friedel 
the  "meat"  purchased  at  the  butcher  shop  contains  an  average  of 
83  per  cent,  meat,  8.4  per  cent,  bone,  8.6  per  cent.  fat.  The  quantita- 
tive proportion  between  the  striated  muscle  and  the  other  constituents 
of  the  body  varies  between  30  and  50  per  cent,  of  the  live  weight,  and 
in  medium  fat  animals,  this  is  higher  than  in  lean  or  very  fat  ones. 

The  structure  of  the  muscle  consists  of  fibrous  tissue,  which  pos- 
sesses a  peculiar  luster  and  a  semisolid  consistence.  The  firmness 
of  the  fiber  is  different  in  the  various  animals,  and  has  an  influence 
on  the  tastefulness  of  the  meat.  The  tenderness  or  toughness,  how- 
ever, does  not  entirely  depend  on  this,  but  is  more  intimately  associated 
with  the  race,  age,  nutritive  condition  of  the  animal,  and  the  amount 
of  connective  tissue  present.  Relative  to  the  latter,  the  experiments 
of  K.  B.  Lehmann  show  that  the  cutaneous  muscles  are  2.5  times 
tougher  than  the  tenderloin,  the  consistency  of  which  is  hardly  influenced 
by  cooking;  but  cooking  considerably  diminishes  the  toughness  of  the 
cutaneous  muscles  almost  to  the  consistency  of  the  tenderloin.  The 
toughness  of  meat  is  diminished  at  least  25  per  cent,  in  a  few  days 
through  the  ripening  process,  which  is  due  to  the  formation  of  acid 
in  the  muscles. 

The  experiments  performed  by  Isaak  regarding  the  toughness  of 
meat  are  not  sufficiently  extensive  for  positive  conclusions. 

The  color  of  the  muscles  varies  between  a  pale  red,  gray  red,  and 
dark  red.  Pale  muscles  occur  in  vertebrates,  birds,  and  certain  fish. 
Almost  all  the  food  animals  show  pale  meat  at  certain  ages  (calves, 
young  pigs),  while  in  rabbits  the  meat  remains  pale  throughout  life. 
Pale  meat  may  also  appear  in  some  animals  in  certain  groups  of  muscles 
alongside  of  dark  red  muscles  (hogs,  birds).  While  the  color  of  the 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS  53 

muscles  is  somewhat  influenced  by  the  blood  content,  yet  it  is  not 
produced  by  the  blood.  The  muscular  coloring  matter,  which  is  identical 
with  the  hemoglobin,  is  rather  bound  to  the  myosin  and  develops  in 
it.  Further,  the  color  of  the  meat  is  influenced  by  age,  sex,  race,  work, 
feeding,  etc.  Especially  in  the  ripening  of  meat  a  specific  aroma  is 
developed,  which,  as  a  result  of  the  autolytic  action,  manifests  itself 
both  by  the  odor  and  taste  (M«  Miiller). 

Rigor  mortis,  which  occurs  after  death,  is  probably  the  result  of  a 
coagulation  of  the  myosin  through  the  formation  of  lactic  acid  in  the 
muscles.  It  may  possibly  be  due  to  a  particular  "rigor  mortis  ferment." 
It  first  affects  the  muscles  of  the  head,  and  then  spreads,  in  accord- 
ance to  Nysten's  law,  backward  over  the  body.  The  time  of  appearanc'e 
of  rigor  mortis  depends  on  the  muscular  activity  before  death;  the 
stronger  the  activity  of  the  muscles  during  life,  the  sooner  rigor  mortis 
sets  in.  In  exhausted  animals,  rigor  mortis,  under  certain  conditions, 
appears  immediately  after  death,  as  also  in  tetanic  muscles.  According 
to  Ostertag,  the  administration  of  certain  medicines,  such  as  veratrin, 
alcohol,  ether,  etheric  oils,  favors  the  early  appearance  of  rigor  mortis. 
In  animals  which  were  affected  with  severe  febrile  diseases,  rigor 
mortis  is  either  not  manifested  or  only  very  slightly,  being  hardly 
noticeable.  High  atmospheric  temperature  favors  the  appearance 
of  rigor  mortis,  while  cold  retards  it.  The  occurrence  of  rigor  mortis 
is  in  the  same  relation  to  its  dissolution;  the  sooner  rigor  mortis  sets 
in  the  quicker  the  muscles  will  relax  again.  Whether  the  dissolution 
of  rigor  mortis  results  from  an  increase  of  acid  formation  in  the  muscles, 
which  again  affects  the  solution  of  the  myosin,  or  whether  it  is  due 
to  other  influences,  is  still  the  subject  of  controversy. 

Von  Fiirth,  in  his  experiments  of  extracting  the  muscle  albumenoid  bodies 
and  of  their  supposed  relation  to  rigor  mortis,  obtained  results  which  appear 
to  exclude  that  rigor  mortis  is  affected  by  an  acid  precipitation  from  the  muscle 
albumen;  but  an  attempt  to  deny  that  the  degree  of  muscular  acidity  has  no 
influence  on  the  appearance  of  rigor  mortis  would  be  too  far  reaching.  The 
postmortem  acid  formation  certainly  relates  to  lactic  acid,  as  the  setting  free 
of  inorganic  phosphoric  acid  does  not  take  place.  For  the  utilization  of  muscles 
for  manufacturing  sausage  the  fact  is  noteworthy  that  muscles  which  still 
contain  the  animal  heat  and  in  which  rigor  mortis  has  not  appeared  may  absorb 
up  to  70  per  cent,  of  water  by  volume  if  they  have  been  previously  beaten, 
or  if  they  were  torn  in  shreds  (Ostertag). 

The  reaction  of  living  muscles  is  slightly  alkaline  or  neutral,  but 
under  normal  conditions  is  changed  to  acid  within  three  to  six  hours 
after  death  through  the  formation  of  lactic  acid,  formic  acid,  and 
potassium  hypophosphate.  The  latter  causes  a  swelling  and  loosening 
of  the  connective-tissue  elements  of  the  meat,  and  renders  the  meat 
tender.  By  this  process  the  so-called  ripening  of  the  meat  takes  place, 
the  nature  and  further  developments  of  which  are  discussed  in  Chapter 
IX.  The  acid  reaction  of  the  muscles  becomes  changed  to  an  alkaline 
reaction  with  the  advancement  of  putrefaction. 

An  alkaline  reaction  of  completely  cooled  meat  from  freshly  killed  animals 
always  indicates  an  abnormal  condition  before  slaughter.  According  to 


54  CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

Edelmann  and  Noack  this  is  very  frequently  met  in  animals  which  were 
slaughtered  under  manifestations  of  suffocation  or  in  condition  of  exhaustion; 
also  in  severe  febrile  diseases,  especially  septic  conditions  and  pyemia,  there 
may  be  an  alkalinity  of  the  meat.  In  the  latter  cases  the  alkalinity  remains 
permanently,  while  in  the  first-mentioned  conditions  an  acid  reaction  some- 
times occurs  after  forty-eight  to  seventy-two  hours.  An  alkaline  reaction  of 
meat  is,  therefore,  an  unsatisfactory  indication  only  when  it  is  lasting,  result- 
ing soon  in  putrefaction  of  the  meat. 

The  principal  chemical  constituents  of  the  muscles  are  the  albu- 
menoids  and  the  nitrogenous  bodies  which  are  present  in  the  proportion 
of  from  16  to  25  per  cent.  Calculated  on  the  basis  of  dry  substances 
meat  contains,  according  to  Salkowski,  77.4  per  cent,  soluble  albumen, 
10  per  cent,  albumen  which  is  soluble  in  cold  water  and  coagulable 
through  heat,  and  12  per  cent,  albumen  soluble  in  cold  water,  but 
uncoagulable  (meat  bases,  lactic  acid,  albumenose,  peptone,  salts, 
especially  phosphocarnic  acid  (Siegfried).  Fat  which  is  found  between 
the  muscle  fibers  in  the  form  of  globules  is  present  to  the  extent  of 
1  per  cent.,  while  water  will  average  about  75  per  cent.  The  taste  of 
the  meat  is  dependent  upon  the  extractive  bodies,  principally  osmazon 
(Landois),  and  the  so-called  meat  bases:  karnin,  kreatin,  kreatinin, 
xanthin,  sarkin,  hypoxanthin,  and  the  muscle  salts.  The  most  im- 
portant salts  are  potassium  phosphate,  with  magnesium  and  calcium 
phosphate  and  the  iron  compounds,  which  amount  to  1  to  H  per 
cent.  Of  the  carbohydrates,  glycogen  generally  occurs  in  muscles 
in  very  small  but  widely  varying  quantities,  especially  in  the  horse,  dog, 
and  fetus. 

Of  the  gases  which  are  present  in  the  muscle  substance,  carbonic 
acid  is  found  in  15  to  18  volume  per  cent.  (Stintzing),  while  oxygen 
is  absent  (Hermann).  Besides,  it  is  probable  that  the  volatile  sulphur 
compounds  first  demonstrated  by  Eber,  especially  H2S,  play  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  changes  of  the  color  of  the  meat  after  death  and  in 
its  preservation  (Glage).  Finally,  enzymes  (soluble  ferments)  are  also 
present  in  the  muscle,  and  these  play  a  principal  part  in  the  ripening 
of  meat. 

The  composition  of  the  meat  in  various  animals  and  of  some  of  the  important 
meat-food  products  is  tabulated,  according  to  Konig,  in  the  tables  on  pages 

55  to  57.    As  a  rule,  meat  rich  in  fat  is  always  poorer  in  water,  and  its  content 
of  albumen  stands  in  an  inverse  relation  to  the  richness  of  the  fat.    Accord- 
ing to  Ignatiew,  meat  should  be  valued  in  accordance  with  its  content  of  the 
two   albumenoid  substances,   myosin  and  myastromin   (Danilewsky) .      The 
first  is  supposed  to  increase  gradually  from  the  muscles  of  the  head  toward 
the  tail,  while  the  latter  increases  in  the  reverse  order. 

The  reductive  properties  of  muscles,  through  which  poisons  are 
split  into  harmless  compounds,  and  coloring  matters  (bilirubin)  are 
changed  into  colorless  modifications,  should  also  be  mentioned  among 
the  chemical  qualities. 

Connective  and  Elastic  Tissues. — The  connective  tissue  containing 
a  fibrous  structure  occurs  in  every  part  of  the  body  in  the  most  varied 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS 


55 


forms  and  connections.  The  color  is  usually  white  or  bluish  white, 
but  if  rich  in  elastic  fibers  the  color  is  yellowish.  The  chemical  base 
of  connective  tissue  is  formed  by  the  albumenoid  collagen  containing 
sulphur,  which  in  cooking  is  changed  into  glutin  (gelatin).  The  elastic 
tissue  (ligamentum  nuchea,  yellow  abdominal  fascia,  etc.),  which  is 
distinguished  by  tough  fibers  and  a  yellow  color,  consists  chiefly  of 
sulphur-free  albumenoid  elastin,  which  cannot  be  converted  through 
heat  into  glutin. 

Fat  Tissue. — Fat  tissue  occurs  in  closest  relation  to  the  connective 
tissue  and  is  characterized  by  the  depositions  of  fat  cells  in  the  loose 
connective  tissue.  It  occurs  almost  all  over  the  body  in  single  or  in 
larger  connecting  masses.  The  largest  fatty  deposits  are  about  the 
kidneys  and  heart,  in  the  mesentery  (ruffle  fat),  and  retroperitoneal 
region  (leaf  lard  in  hogs),  while  the  subcutaneous  fat  cushion  (bacon 
of  hogs)  is  in  some  parts  of  the  body  particularly  bulky.  The  fat  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  is  termed  tallow,  while  that  from  hogs  is  called 
lard.  The  properties  of  fat  are  considerably  influenced  by  the  species 
of  animal,  age,  sex,  and  nutritive  condition.  The  structure  and  con- 
sistency of  fat  tissues  still  retaining  the  animal  heat  are  transparent, 
homogeneous,  or  slightly  stringy  and  oily.  After  fat  stiffens,  which 
depends  on  its  melting  point  and  the  surrounding  temperature,  it 
becomes  dull,  greasy,  and  crumbling. 

The  color  of  fat  varies  between  the  purest  white  (hog,  sheep)  and 
a  dark  yellow  (horse);  also  gray  and  grayish-red  color  tints  may  be 
observed  (calf). 

Table  comparing  the  composition  and  utilization  of  various  meats  and  food 
products,  according  to  Konig* 


Designation. 

Raw  nutritive  substances. 

Utilizable  nutri- 
tive substances. 

Nutritive  relation2 
of  nitrogenous  to 
nitrogen-free  sub- 
stances. 

1 

il 

§>"£ 

11 

5 

1 

1 

T3 

>> 

! 

1 

<c 

1 

1 

si 

I 

1 

£ 

2 

"d 
>> 

1 

a 

)            ffat     
>  Beef  <  medium  fat        .      .      . 
j            (Jean         
Veal   first  quality 

Per 
cent. 

56.20 
71.50 
75.00 
71  00 

Per 
cent. 

18.00 
20.10 
20.50 
19.95 
20  .  65 
16.85 
17.65 
21.50 
18.12 
15.21 
17.55 
18.43 
17.77 
19.92 
10.15 
15.50 
0.44 
0.26 

Per 
cent. 

25.00 
7.40 
2.80 
8.00 
4.30 
27.00 
24.00 
2.50 
0.18 
2.47 
10.12 
4.45 
4.19 
3.65 
27.93 
17.00 
98.15 
99.04 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 

Per 
cent. 

0.80 
1.00 
1.20 
1.05 
1.25 
0.90 
0.95 
1.00 
0.85 
1.87 
0.95 
1.19 
1.56 
1.55 
1.08 
42  50 

Per 
cent. 

17.55 
19.60 
19.99 
19.45 
20.13 
16.43 
17.21 
20.96 
17.67 
13.54 
15.62 
16.40 
15.82 
17.73 
9.03 

Per 
cent. 

23.75 
7.03 
2.66 
7.60 
4.09 
25.65 
22.80 
2.38 
0.17 
2.30 
9.41 
4.14 
3.90 
3.39 
25.97 

Per 
cent. 

0.76 
0.03 
0.55 
0.31 
0.38 
1.00 
3.30 
21.18 

As  1: 

3.4 
0.9 
0.3 
1.0 
0.5 
4.5 
3.3 
0.3 
0.03 
0.5 
1.5 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
9.5 

Goat  meat      
Mutton,  first  quality 
Pork,  first  quality     .... 
Horse  meat     
Blood  
Lung    
Heart  
Kidneys    
(Spleen       
Liver   
Udder        
Bone    
Cattle  tallow        .... 
Lard    

73.80 
55.25 
57.40 
74.20 
80.82 
79.89 
71.07 
75.55 
75.47 
71.55 
39.45 
25.00 
1.33 
0.70 

0.803 
0.034 
0.564 
0.314 
0.38< 
1.014 
3.334 
21.39* 





0.08 

0.39 
0.23 

91.28 
95.08 

.'..'.'. 

585.1 
1,033.5 

1  Konig,  The  Human  Foods  and  Delicacies,  etc.,  fourth  edition,  1904,  Bd.  ii, 

2  For  utilizable  nutritive  substances.  *  Glycogen. 


1467. 
4  Carbohydrate. 


56     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

Table  comparing  the  composition  and  utilization  of  various  meats  and  food 
products,  according  to  Konig — Continued. 

Preserved  meats  and  sausages. 


Raw  nutritive  substances. 

Utilizable  nutri- 
tive substances. 

.°  2  & 

Designation. 

a  § 

lydrate. 

| 

enous 
tances. 

~o3 
TJ 
& 

ive  relat 
itrogenoi 
>gen-free 
ces. 

1 

•8   1    * 

II 

| 

'C     .3  9 

03 

.-£  w 

1 

3  1  1 

g" 

03 

6 

fc°' 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per      Per 

Per 

As  1: 

cent. 

cent. 

cent.  cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent.  cent. 

cent. 

Smoked  meat  from  steer              47  62 

27   10 

15  35 

10  59 

26  42  14  50 

1  4 

Ham,  pickled  or  smoked      .      .28.lli24.74 

36.45' 

10.54 

24   12  34  68 

3  7 

Bacon,  pickled  or  smoked    .      .  10.211   8.95  72.82  

8.02 

8.7369.18  

19.8 

Goose  breast         

41.3521.45 

31.49    1.15 

4.56 

20.9129.92    1.14 

3.7 

Beef  sausage  48.24 

20.39 

26.99  

4  43 

19.8325.64  .  . 

3  2 

Cervelat  sausage                              24   18  23  93 

45  93 

5  96'  53  33  42  fi2 

4  7 

Frankfurter  sausage        .      .      .42.  80!  12.  51 

39.11    2.49 

3.09 

12.2037.15    2.47 

7.8 

Blood  sausage,  best  quality       .  49.93  11.81 

11.4825.09 

....       1.69 

10.51  10.4523.84 

4.8 

Liver  sausage,  medium  quality  47.80  12.89  25.  10  12.00 

2.21 

11.47 

22.8411.40          5.9 

Link  sausage        

7.07 

16.39 

634.0032.3 

0.80    9.48 

13.82 

31.6030.67          7.2 

Meat  of  game  and  fowl. 


29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
Ho 
30 

Rabbit  
Deer 

74.16 
75  76 

23.34    1.13 
19.11     1.92 
19.72    1.42 
18.49    9.34 
24.70    8.50 
22.65    3.11 
15.9145.59 
22.14    1.00 
1 

0.19 
0.42 
1.27 
1.20 

Y.33 
'6:76 

1.18 
1.13 
1.37 
0.91 
1  .  20 
1  .  09 
0.48 
1  .  00 
1 

22.76    1.07  0.19 
19.28    1.82  1.41 
19.23    1.35  1.26 
18.03    8.817  1.19 
24.08    8.07  
22.08    2.95  2.31 
15.51  43.3  1  
21.59    0.95  0.75 

0. 
0. 
0. 
1. 
0. 
0. 
7. 
0. 

Chicken,  lean       
Chicken,  fat   
Turkey,  medium  fat 
Duck,  wild      ....... 
Goose,  fat       
Pigeon       

76.22 
70.06 
65.60 
70.82 
38.02 
75.10 

Meat  of  fish. 


37  Salmon 


3S 


39  Sea  eel 


River  eel    . 


.  64.0021 


58.21 


Herring 
Halibut 


.  72.9017. 


42  Carp 

43  Pike     . 

Haddock 

45  Codfish 

46  Haddock,  dried  and  smoked 
Frog  leg 

48  Giant  turtle 

49  Sole 

50  Trout 


.75.09 
.  75.24 
.  73.47 
.79.63 


.81.5016 


82.42 
.  17.21 


.63.6424 


Salmon  trout 

52  Tench 

53  Turbot       . 
Caviar 


.[79.78 
.82.67 
.77.51 
.  80.50 
.80.00 
.J77.60 


2427.48 
96  7.82 
.44  7.63 
.53  5.16 
.671  8.73 
.42  0.53 
.93!  0.26  .  .  . 
.97  0.31 
.37J  2.47 
.17  0.91 
49;  0.53 

0.53! 

2.10! 

0.74J 

0.39 

2.28 


47.8629.34  13.98 




1.22 

20.51 
11.87 
17.42 
14.98 
17.97 
16.70 
17.87 
16.42 
15.49 
70.20 
22.96 
17.57 
14.16 
18.60 
16.99 
16.95 
17.56 
28.46 

12.31 
25.01 
7.12 
6.94 
4.70 
7.94 
0.48 
0.24 
0.28 
2.25 
0.83 
0.48 
0.48 
1.91 
0.67 
0.35 
2.07 
13.28 

'2^89 



•i\» 

1.5 
5.2 
1.0 
1.2 
0.6 
1.2 
0.7 
0.04 
0.04 
0.1 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
0.3 
0.1 
0.05 
0.3 
1.2 

'2!<J8 

'i'.so 

Meat  of  invertebrate  animals. 


55  Oysters,  meat  juice  .... 

87.36    5.95 

1.15 

3.57 

2.03    5.77 

1.05    3.53 

1   1 

56  Common  mussel        .... 

83.61    9.97 

1.17 

3.57 

1.61    9.47 

1.06    3.53 

0.6 

57  Lobster,  fresh       

81.84  14.49 

1.84 

0.12 

1.71  13  77 

1.67,  0.12 

0.3 

58  1  Lobster,  preserved    .... 

77.75  18.13 

1.07 

0.58 

2.47  17.22 

0.97    0.57 

0^2 

59  River  crabs,  fresh      .... 

81.22  16.00 

0.46 

1.01 

1.31  15  20 

9.42    1.00 

0.  1 

60  River  crabs,  preserved    . 

72.74  13.63 

0.36 

0.21 

13.06  12.95 

0.33    0.21 

01 

61  Crab,  fresh     

78.81  15.83 

1.32 

2.42 

1.62  15.04 

1  20    2  40 

0.3 

62  Crab,  preserved  

70.8025.38 

1.00 

0.24 

2.5824.11 

0.91    0.24 

01 

63j  Great  snail     

80.5016.34 

1.38 

0.45 

•    •• 

1.3315.52 

1.26    0.45 

0.3 

1  For  utilizable  nutritive  substances. 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS 


57 


Table  comparing  the  composition  and  utilization  of  various  meats  and  food 
products,  according  to  Konig — Continued. 


Meat  extracts. 


1 

1 

o 

I 

.1 

Designation. 

i 

•a 

| 

PQ 

«t 

I 

•§J 

g 

£ 

a 

f? 

4 

•g  2 

J 

is 

03 

1 

H 

I 

1 

a 

a 

S-a 

03 

| 

1 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

cent. 

$ 

Liebig's  Meat  Extract    . 
Abil's  Fluid  Extract        .      .      . 

17.70    9.17    6.37 
65.80    3.03    6.91 

53.87 
9.26 

0.59 
0.35 

0.648 
0.148 

0.21 
0.35 

21.26 
17.33 

3.75 
1.35 

Armour's  (solid)  Extract 

21.00;   9.32  16.12'           42.08 

0.567 

0.58 

20.25 

3.70 

Flagg's  (solid)  Extract   .      .      . 

21.37 

10.01  17.37 

41.18 

0.687 

0.35 

19.23 

3.25 

Chemically  fats  are  the  richest  substances  among  hydrocarbons. 
Fresh  adipose  tissue  shows  the  following  composition  in  one  hundred 
parts,  according  to  E.  Schulz  and  Reinecke: 


Steer 

Sheep 

Hog 


Species. 


Nitrogenous 
substances. 

1.16 
1.64 
1.35 


Fat. 

88.88 
87.88 
92.21 


Water. 

9.96 

10.48 

6.44 


The  fat  itself  is  a  mixture  of  glycerides  (ester,  derivative  of  tri- 
equivalent  alcohol),  tripalmitin,  tristearin,  and  triolein,  which,  depend- 
ing upon  their  predominance,  influence  the  consistency  of  the  fat. 

Bones  and  Bone  Marrow.— In  meat  inspection  the  bones  come 
into  consideration,  principally  in  regard  to  their  form,  for  the  purpose 
of  recognizing  the  origin  and  derivation  of  the  meat.  Structural  rela- 
tions, color,  and  compactness  of  bones  are  only  rarely  of  importance 
in  connection  with  the  other  properties. 

The  chemical  constituents  of  bones  are  bone  cartilage  (ossein)  30 
per  cent.,  inorganic  material,  70  per  cent.,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
fat.  The  first  consists  principally  of  collagen,  which  is  converted 
through  boiling  into  glutin.  The  salts  in  the  dry  bone  consist  of  an 
average  of  87.7  per  cent,  calcium  phosphate,  9.1  calcium  carbonate, 
2  per  cent,  calcium  fluoride,  and  1.2  per  cent,  magnesium  phosphate. 
Heinze  reports  the  following  composition  for  cattle  and  sheep  bones: 


Calcium  carbonate  . 
Magnesium  phosphate 
Calcium  phosphate  . 
Calcium  fluoride 
Organic  substance    . 

The  bone  marrow  appears  as  a  red  or  reddish-white  substance  (fat 
marrow).  The  latter  consists  of  about  96  per  cent,  fat,  and  contains 
a  firmness  in  the  various  animals  which  corresponds  to  the  consistence 
of  fat  in  the  respective  species.  The  red  bone  marrow  is  semisolid. 


. 

Cattle  bones 
per  cent. 

7.07 
2  09 

Sheep  bones 
per  cent. 

7.00 
1.59 

• 

.....     58.30 
1.96 
30.58 

72.70 
2.17 
26.54 

58     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 


FIG.  21 


Head  of  cow  with  the  tongue 
cut  out:  a,  a',  retropharyngeal 
lymph  glands;  b,  submaxillary 
lymph  glands;  c,  tonsils;  d,  pos- 
terior nares;  e,  cephalic  flexure; 
/,  submaxillary  salivary  gland; 
g,  styloid  processes  of  the  hyoid 
bone. 


Cartilage.  —  From  the  standpoint  of  meat 
inspection  cartilage  is  of  very  slight  impor- 
tance. It  consists  of  a  collagenous  basic 
substance  which  by  boiling  is  converted  into 
gelatin. 

Blood  and  Bloodvessels. — The  question  re- 
garding the  quantity  of  blood  in  the  body  has 
already  been  considered  on  page  41.  In  thor- 
oughly bled  animals,  liquid  blood  is  only  found 
in  the  small  veins  of  the  muscles  and  organs, 
while  coagulated  blood  may  be  seen  in  the 
heart  and  in  the  large  veins.  The  arteries  are 
always  empty  of  blood.  The  color,  coagulation, 
and  microscopic  appearance  of  the  blood  of 
healthy  animals  should  not  show  a  deviation 
from  the  normal.  There  is  a  peculiar  odor  of 
the  blood,  characteristic  to  each  animal  species. 
It  -results  from  the  volatile  fatty  acids,  and 
appears  more  pronounced  upon  the  addition 
of  sulphuric  acid. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  blood  con- 
sists, according  to  Konig,  of  80.82  per  cent, 
water,  18.12  per  cent,  nitrogenous  substances, 
0.18  per  cent,  fat,  0.03  per  cent,  nitrogen — free 
extractive  bodies — and  0.85  per  cent.  ash.  On 
account  of  the  richness  of  the  blood  in  albumen, 
it  is  a  very  nutritive  food. 

Lymph  Glands  and  Lymph  Vessels. — The 
lymph  glands,  which  lately  have  been  designated 
as  lymph  nodes,  are  of  special  importance  in 
meat  inspection.  In  size  they  appear  relatively 
larger  in  young  animals  than  in  old  ones.  This 
is  likewise  true  of  the  lymph  contents  of  the 
glands,  and  the  intestinal  glands  also  are  richer 
in  lymph  than  the  body  glands.  All  the  lymph 
vessels  of  a  certain  region  empty  into  a  certain 
lymph  gland,  but  the  anatomical  borders  of 
such  a  region  are  not  established  in  the  entire 
body.  As  far  as  present  knowledge  of  the 
lymphatic  system  permits  separation  of  the 
regions  of  the  various  lymph  glands,  it  may  be 
accepted  that  these  are  not  connected  with 
each  other,  and  that  for  every  part  of  the 
body  there  are  one  or  more  distinct  lymph 
glands  (corresponding  lymph  glands).  Their 
size,  number,  and  location  are  subject  to  certain 
deviations. 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS 


59 


For  the  purpose  of  meat  inspection  it  is  best  to  classify  the  lymph 
glands,  in  accordance  with  their  draining  regions,  into  visceral  lymph 
glands,  muscular  or  body  lymph  glands,  and  mixed  lymph  glands. 
To  the  latter  class  belong  all  those  lymph  glands  which  receive  their 
lymph  not  alone  from  the  viscera,  but  also  from  the  muscles  (muscles, 
skeleton,  etc.). 


FIG.  22 


Head  of  cow,  the  right  submaxillary  and  left  styloid  of  the  hyoid  bone  of  which  are  removed:  1, 
articular  surface  of  the  temporal  bone;  2,  external  auditory  meatus;  3,  jugular  process  of  the  occipital 
bone;  4,  petrous  bone;  5,  muscular  attachment  to  petrous  bone;  6,  occipital  condyle;  7,  medulla  oblon- 
gata;  8,  pterygoid  bone;  9,  tonsils;  10,  styloid  process  of  the  hyoid  bone;  11,  thyroid  cornua  of  the 
hyoid  bone;  12,  cricoid  laryngeal  cartilage;  13,  ring  of  the  trachea;  a,  masseter  muscle;  b,  temporal 
muscle;  c,  tensor  muscle  of  the  palate;  d,  levator  muscle  of  the  palate;  e,  pterygopharyngeal  muscle; 
/,  chondro-,  crico-,  thyropharyngeus  muscle;  g,  hyoglossal  muscle;  h,  styloglossal  muscle;  i,  M. 
keratohyoideus  brevis;  k,  M.  hyothyroideus;  I,  and  m,  M.  omohyoideus;  n,  M.  sterno thyroid;  o,  M. 
myoglossus;  p,  M.  mylohyoid;  q,  M.  sternohyoideus;  r,  M.  long,  capit.;  s,  M.  rect.  capit.;  t,  arcus 
palatoglossus;  S,  submaxillary  salivary  gland;  u,  submaxillary  lymph  gland;  V,  retropharyngeal 
lymph  glands. 

Visceral  Lymph  Glands. — Visceral  lymph  glands  are  those  which 
receive  their  lymph  principally  from  the  viscera  to  which  they  belong. 
Those  lymph  glands  which  belong  functionally  to  the  various  organs 
or  viscera  of  the  body,  and  which  are  important  in  meat  inspection, 
are  described  as  follows:1 


1  L,  signifies  the  location  of  the  lymph  gland;   A,  afferent  vessels,  and  E,  efferent  vessels. 


60     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

(a)  LYMPH  GLANDS  OF  THE  DIGESTIVE  APPARATUS,  INCLUDING 
THE  ABDOMINAL  AND  PELVIC  CAVITIES. — 1.  Submaxillary  Lymph 
Glands:  L.  Superficially  in  the  submaxillary  space;  in  cattle  at  the 
angle  of  the  lower  jaw  bone,  sometimes  present  as  two  small  nodes; 
in  hogs,  adjacent  and  to  the  inside  of  the  submaxillary  salivary  gland. 
A.  Superficial  parts  of  the  head,  interior  nasal  passages  and  buccal  cavity. 
E.  Superior  cervical  lymph  glands  (Fig.  21  b,  Fig.  22  u,  Fig.  23  u.) 

FIG.  23 


Right  half  of  a  vertical  section  of  a  hog's  head:  1,  cartilaginous  nucleus  attaching  the  hyoid  to  the 
temporal  bone;  2,  jugular  process  of  the  occipital  bone;  a,  M.  longus  colli;  b,  M.  sternocleidomaatoid.; 
c,  M.  sternocephalic. ;  d,  M.  pterygoid.  medial.;  e,  M.  sternohyoid.;  /,  soft  palate;  g.  post,  nares;  S, 
submaxillary  salivary  gland;  u,  submaxillary  lymph  gland;  V,  retropharyngeal  lymph  gland. 

2.  Parotid  Lymph  Gland. — L.  Median  surface  of  the  parotid  and 
submaxillary  salivary  glands.    In  cattle  a  special  large  gland  extending 
over  the  maxillary  border  of  the  parotid,  and  partly  laying  on  the 
masseter  muscle.     In  hogs  very  numerous,  large,  and  red  in  color. 
A.  Dorsal  half  of  the  head,  cranial  cavity,  base  of  the  cranium,  tongue, 
soft  palate,  esophagus,  and  larynx.    E.  Superior  cervical  lymph  glands. 

3.  Superior  Cervical  Lymph  Glands. — Partly  united  with  portions  of 
the  previous  gland  to  the  retropharyngeal  lymph  glands.    L.  Posterior 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS 


61 


to  the  larynx  and  pharynx  near  the  thyroid  gland;  in  cattle  at  the 
base  of  the  cranium,  in  the  superior  part  of  the  pharyngeal  cavity 
forming  two  large  bodies.  A.  Inside  of  the  head,  together  with  the 
cranial,  buccal,  and  tracheal  cavities,  and  the  efferent  lymph  vessels 
of  1  and  2.  E.  Middle  and  inferior  cervical  lymph  glands  (Fig.  21  a, 
Fig.  22  u,  Fig.  23 1>). 

4.  Middle  Cervical  Glands. — L.  Middle  of  the  neck  at  the  side  of 
the  trachea,  anterior  to  the  carotid  artery.  A.  Esophagus  and  trachea, 
superior  cervical  glands.  E.  Inferior  cervical  lymph  glands. 

FIG.  24 


Intestinal 


of  cattle  spread  out:     C,  colon;  Ca,  cecum;  D,  duodenum;  j,  jejunum;  //,  ileum; 
R,  rectum;  m,  mesenteric  lymph  glands  of  the  small  intestines. 


5.  Inferior  Cervical  Glands,  Prepectoral  Glands. — L.  At  the  entrance 
of  the  thorax  anterior  to  the  trachea  and  extending  into  the  thoracic 
cavity.      A.   Neighboring   parts,   shoulder,   upper  arm,   and   efferent 
lymph  vessels  from  middle  cervical  glands  (and  therefore,  also,  from 
1  and  3),  and  also  from  the  puescapular  lymph  gland.     E.  Thoracic 
duct,  i.  e.,  the  great  right  lymph  vein  (Fig.  29  6). 

6.  Gastric  Lymph   Glands.- — L.  Small  curvature,  toward  both  sur- 
faces of  the  stomach.     In  ruminants  in  the  long  groove  of  the  rumen 
and  at  the  attachment  of  the  small  mesentery.    A.  Wall  of  the  stomach. 
E.  Receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  25). 

7.  Mesenteric  Lymph  Glands:— L.  Between  the  peritoneal  folds  of 
the   mesentery   along  the   small   curvature   of   the   small   intestines, 


62     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

between  the  flexures  of  the  colon  and  in  the  mesentery  of  the  same. 
In  hogs  also  a  group  at  the  superior  border  of  the  mesentery.  In 
dogs  on  the  jejunum  there  is  a  very  long  mesenteric  lymph  gland, 
the  so-called  pancreas  Aselli.  A.  Wall  of  large  and  small  intestines. 
E.  Receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  24). 

8.  Anal  Lymph  Glands. — L.  Two  or  three  lymph  glands  in  the 
periproctal  connective  tissue  in  the  vicinity  of  the  levator  ani  muscle. 
A.  Rectum,  perineum,  and  root  of  the  tail.  E.  Sublumbar  lymph 
glands  (Fig.  276). 

FIG.  25 


Stomach  and  portion  of  the  intestinal  canal  of  a  hog:  a,  pyloric  portion  of  the  stomach;  6,  duodenum ; 
c.  jejunum;  d,  cecum;  e,  colon;/,  rectum;  h,  foramen  of  Winslow;  i,  portal  vein;  k,  hepatic  lymph  glands; 
I,  gastric  lymph  glands;  m,  esophagus. 

9.  Hepatic    Lymph    Glands — Portal    Lymph    Glands. — L.    In    the 
posterior  hepatic  fissure  (Porta  hepatis);  in  hogs  on  the  portal  vein 
around  the  foramen  of  Winslow,  usually  conspicuous  by  their  brown 
color.     A.  Liver  tissue.     E.  Receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  25 k  and  Fig.  26 c). 

10.  Splenic  Lymph   Glands. — L.  Hilus  of  the  spleen,  between  the 
layers  of  the  gastrosplenic  ligament.     A.  Spleen,  stomach,  and  omen- 
turn.    E.  Receptaculum  chyli. 

11.  Sublumbar  Lymph  Glands. — L.  Side  and  ventral  surface  of  the 
lumbar  vertebrae,  dorsal  to  the  great  bloodvessels,  partially  covered 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS  63 

by  the  lumbar  muscles.  A.  Dorsal  abdominal  wall,  lumbar  vertebrae, 
internal  genital  organs.  Lymph  vessels  from  the  external  and  internal 
iliacs,  deep  inguinal,  sacral,  and  popliteal  glands.  E.  Receptaculum 
chyli  (Fig.  27e). 

12.  Sacral  Lymph    Glands. — L.   Along  the   ventral   border  of  the 
sacrum.     A.  Dorsal  pelvic  wall,  rectum,  and  internal  genital  organs. 
E.  Sublumbar  glands  (Fig.  27  d). 

13.  Internal  Iliac  Lymph    Glands. — L.   At  the  angle  between  the 
external  iliac  and  the  hypogastric  arteries,  i.  e.,  between  the  former 
and  the  abdominal  aorta,  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  ileum.    A.  Abdom- 
inal and   pelvic   walls,  bones   of  the  pelvis,  sacrum,  muscles  of  the 
croup,  rectum,  internal  genital  organs,  external  iliac  lymph  glands. 
E.  Sublumbar  lymph  glands  and  the  receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  27  c). 

14.  External  Iliac  Lymph  Glands. — L.  Small  and  detached,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  angle  of  the  ileum,  in  the  angle  between  both 
branches  of  the  circumflex  iliac  artery.     A.  Abdominal  wall,  lateral 
surface  of  the  upper  part  of  the  thigh.     E.  Sublumbar  lymph  glands. 

FIG.  20 


Gastric  surface  of  the  liver  of  cattle:    a,  vena  cava;  b,  entrance  of  the  portal  vein;  c,  portal  lymph 
glands;  d,  lobus  caudatus  (Spigelium);  e,  gall-bladder. 

(6)  LYMPH  GLANDS  OF  THE  RESPIRATORY  APPARATUS,  AND  THORACIC 
CAVITY. — The  lymph  glands  described  under  (a)  from  1  to  5  belong 
also  to  the  respiratory  apparatus.  As  previously  stated,  they  receive 
lymph  from  regions  belonging  in  part  to  the  digestive  as  well  as  to 
the  respiratory  apparatus. 

6.  Bronchial  Lymph  Glands. — L.  Bifurcation  of  the  trachea,  in  the 
lung  substance  at  the  branching  of  the  bronchi.  In  cattle  they  form 
a  continuous  chain  with  the  posterior  mediastinal  lymph  glands; 
there  is  one  large  or  several  small  glands  to  the  left  of  the  arch  of  the 
aorta;  one  on  the  right,  at  the  branching  of  the  bronchus  of  the  cephalic 


64     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

lobe,  or  at  the  root  of  the  lobule  of  the  right  lobe,  besides  a  lymph 
gland  of  the  size  of  a  hazelnut  at  the  base  of  the  division  between 
the  cardiac  and  diaphragmatic  lobe  of  the  right  lung.  In  hogs  there 


FIG.  27 


ZP 


Left  hind-quarter  of  a  bull,  cut  very  long:  A,  aorta;  V,  vena  cava;  Z,  diaphragm;  ZP,  pillars  of  the 
diaphragm;  L,  external  inguinal  canal;  N,  left  kidney;  Nnr,  right  adrenal  capsule;  Nnl,  left  adrenal 
capsule;  P,  pancreas;  R,  renal  artery;  /,  external  iliac  artery;  a,  superficial  inguinal  lymph  gland; 
b,  anal  lymph  gland;  c,  internal  iliac  gland;  d,  sacral  lymph  gland,  e,  lumbar  glands;  /,  renal  lymph 
gland. 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS 


65 


is  generally  another  lymph  gland  at  the  attachment  of  the  media- 
stinum at  the  dorsal  angle  of  the  bifurcation  of  the  two  principal  bronchi 
(middle  bronchial  lymph  gland).  A.  Lungs  and  lymph  vessels  from 
the  posterior  mediastinal  gland.  E.  Thoracic  duct  and  partly  to  the 
posterior  mediastinal  glands  (Fig.  28  a,  b). 


FIG.  25 


Lungs  and  heart  of  steer,  suspended  dorsal  view:  Aa,  aorta  ascendens;  Ad,  aorta  descendens  cut 
and  flapped  over  to  the  left;  Ap,  art.  pulmonalis;  Acs,  left  cordal  atrium;  L,  left,  L',  right  lung;  Oe, 
esophagus;  T,  trachea;  a,  right  superior  bronchial  lymph  gland;  b,  left  bronchial  lymph  gland;  c, 
posterior  mediastinal  lymph  glands. 

7.  Mediastinal  Lymph  Glands. — (a)  Anterior  mediastinal  glands: 
L.  Numerous  in  the  precardial  mediastinal  space  near  the  superior 
vena  cava.  In  cattle  several  large  lymph  glands  (Fig.  29  a),  above 
the  first  section  of  the  breastbone,  near  the  entrance  of  the  thorax. 
A.  Heart,  pericardium,  thymus  gland,  thoracic  wall,  diaphragm, 
mediastinum.  E.  Thoracic  duct  or  great  right  lymph  vein. 

(b)  Posterior  mediastinal  lymph  glands:  L.  In  the  post-cardial 
mediastinum,  along  the  esophagus,  and  posterior  aorta.  In  cattle, 
8  to  12  lymph  glands  are  located  along  the  dorsal  wall  of  the  esophagus, 
5 


66     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

the  posterior  node  of  which  is  usually  strikingly  large  (Fig.  28  c).  In 
hogs  they  are  very  small  or  absent.  A.  Esophagus,  pericardium, 
diaphragm,  mediastinum,  parietal  surface  of  the  liver.  E.  Efferent 
vessels  empty  in  part  into  the  bronchial  glands,  in  part  into  the  anterior 
mediastinal  glands  and  in  part  into  the  thoracic  duct. 

FJG.  29 


Portion  of  the  left  thoracic  wall  of  heifer:  A,  art.  thoracic,  int.;  V,  vena  thoracic,  int.;  I,  muse, 
sternocephalic. ;  M,  muse,  transvers.  thorac.  cut  through:  PP',  muse,  pectoral.;  R,  ribs;  Z,  diaphragm; 
o,  inferior  thoracic  lymph  glands;  a',  anterior  mediastinal  gland;  b,  inferior  cervical  or  prepectoral 
lymph  glands. 

8.  Lymph  Glands  of  the  Thoracic  Wall. — (a)  Dorsal  lymph  glands. 
L.  Small,  to  the  side  of  the  vertebrae,  between  the  consecutive  articula- 
tions of  the  heads  of  the  ribs,  and  between  the  layers  of  the  intercostal 
muscles.  A.  Dorsal  vertebrae,  muscles  of  the  same,  pleura,  diaphragm, 
and  intercostal  muscles.  E.  Thoracic  duct. 

(b)  Inferior  Thoracic  Lymph  Glands. — L.  Dorsal  surface  of  the 
breastbone  along  the  internal  thoracic  vein,  i.  e.,  between  the  costal 
cartilage  breastbone  articulations.  In  hogs  they  are  only  exceptionally 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS  67 

present.  A.  Straight  abdominal,  transverse  abdominal,  thoracic,  and 
intercostal  muscles,  pleura  and  diaphragm.  E.  Receptaculum  chyli, 
inferior  cervical  glands  (Fig.  29  a) . 

(c)  LYMPH  GLANDS  OF  THE  GENITOURINARY  APPARATUS. — 1.  Renal 
Lymph  Glands. — L.  Hilus  of  the  kidneys,  at  the  angle  between  the 
aorta  and  renal  artery  or  posterior  vena  cava,  and  renal  vein.  A. 
Kidneys.  E.  Receptaculum  chyli  (Fig.  27  b). 

2  to  4.  Lymph  glands,  which  have  been  described  under  (a),  11  to 
13.  A.  Ureters,  bladder,  urethra,  and  genitals  inside  of  the  pelvic 
cavity.  E.  Receptaculum  chyli  and  sublumbar  lymph  glands. 

FIG.  30 


Left  fore-quarter  of  heifer  with  exposed  prescapular  lymph  gland:  o,  a,  M.  trapezius  cervical, 
and  thoracal.;  b,  b',  M.  omotransversarius ;  c,  c',  c",  d,  M.  brachiocephalicus  (of  which  d  is  the  M. 
cleidomastoideus) ;  e,  jugular  vein;  /and  g,  M.  sternocephalic.  (superficial  and  deep  portion);  h,  ster- 
num; i,  M.  pectoral,  superficial.;  k,  spinal,  scapul.;  I,  prescapular  lymph  gland;  m,  pars  acromial. 
and  m',  pars  scapular  of  the  M.  deltoideus;  n,  caput.  lateral.,  and  n',  caput.  long.,  of  the  M.  triceps 
brachii;  o,  M.  latissim.  dorsi;  p,  M.  serrat.  ventral.;  q,  M.  pectoral,  profund.;  r,  M.  obliq.  ext.  abdominal. 

5.  Superficial  Inguinal  Glands. — L.  In  male  animals  these  include 
several  lymph  nodes,  between  the  abdominal  wall  and  the  prepuce 
and  scrotum.  In  female  animals  they  are  located  superficially  behind 
the  udder.  In  cows  these  are  the  large  lymph  glands  on  each  side 
behind  and  above  the  udder  (supramammary  lymph  glands).  A. 
External  genitals,  udder,  ventral  abdominal  wall  and  median  surface 
of  the  thigh.  E.  Deep  inguinal  lymph  gland  (Fig.  27  a). 

Body  Lymph  Glands. — As  applied  to  meat  inspection  the  term  muscle 
or  body  lymph  glands  refers  to  those  lymph  glands  which  drain  regions 
in  the  skeleton  and  muscles,  i.  e.,  those  tissues  which  enclose  them  as 
well  as  the  bones  and  skin,  but  they  do  not  receive  lymph  from  the 
viscera. 


68      CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

The  body  lymph  glands,  which  are  important  in  meat  inspection, 
are  the  following: 

1.  Prescapular  Lymph  Glands. — L.  Anterior  border  of  the  shoulder, 
above  the   scapulohumeral   articulation,  and   covered  principally  by 
the  angularis  scapulse  muscle  and  sometimes  by  the  dorsal  border 
of  the  mastoidohumeralis  muscle.       A.   Neck,   shoulder,  upper  and 
lower  leg.    E.  Inferior  cervical  lymph  glands  (Fig.  30  I). 

2.  Axillary  Lymph    Glands. — L.   Median  surface  of  the  shoulder, 
dorsal  border  of  the  pectoralis  minor  muscle,  posteriorly  to  the  shoulder 
joint,  near  the  entrance  of  the  lateral  thoracic  vein  into  the  axillary 
vein.     They  are  usually  absent  in  hogs.     A.  Shoulder,  upper  arm, 
thoracic  wall,  and  elbow  lymph  gland.     E.  Inferior  cervical  lymph 
glands. 

3.  Elbow  Lymph  Glands. — They  occur  only  in  the  horse.    L.  Median 
side  of  the  upper  arm  near  the  cubital  articulation  between  the  biceps 
brachii  muscle  and  the  median  anconeUs  muscle  on  the  brachial  vein. 
A.  Foot  and  lower  arm.     E.  Axillary  and  prescapular  lymph  glands. 

4.  Precrural  Lymph   Glands. — L.  In  the  tendinous  portion  of    the 
external  abdominal  muscle  on  the  free  border  of  the  fascia  lata  muscle 
in  the  middle,  between  the  patella  and  the  external  angle  of  the  ileum. 
In  cattle  and  hogs  this  gland  is  a  long  single  one.    A.  Abdominal  wall 
and  lateral  surface  of  the  posterior  limb.     E.  Sublumbar  and  internal 
iliac  glands  (Fig.  31  Z,  and  Fig.  32/). 

5.  Popliteal    Lymph     Gland. — L.    On    the    gastrocnemius    muscle, 
between  the  biceps  femoris  muscle  and  the  semitendinosus  muscle. 
It  is  frequently  absent  in  hogs,  but  there  is  always  present  a  superficial 
gland,  the  size  of  a  small  hazelnut,  in  the  subcutis  of  the  hollow  of  the 
hock  about  a  handbreadth  from  the  point  of  the  hock.     A.  Lower 
part  of  leg  and  foot.    E.  Deep  inguinal,  sublumbar,  and  external  ischial 
lymph  glands  (Fig.  31  c,  and  Fig.  33  a). 

6.  Deep  Inguinal  Lymph  Glands. — L.  In  the  inguinal  canal  lying 
above  the  femoral  artery  and  vein.     Only  in  the  horse  do  they  exist 
as  large  glands.     A.  Posterior  limb  with  the  exception  of  the  external 
surface  of  the  thigh  and  muscle  thereof;  abdominal  wall.     E.  Sub- 
lumbar  lymph  glands  and  receptaculum  chyli. 

7.  External  Ischial  Lymph    Gland   (Franck). — L.   In   cattle   about 
the  size  of  a  walnut  on  the  ventral  border  of  the  coccygeus,  covered 
by  the  broad  ligament  of  the  pelvis  (Stroh).     In  hogs  it  lays  usually 
more  superficially.     A.  Pelvic  and  rump  muscles  and  popliteal  lymph 
gland.    E.  Sacral  and  sublumbar  lymph  glands. 

8.  Flank  Lymph  Gland  (Franck). — L.  In  ruminants  under  the  skin 
of  the  triangle  in  front  of  the  external  angle  of  the  ileum.    A.  Neighbor- 
ing parts  of  the  skin.     E.  Precrural  lymph  gland. 

In  the  subcutis  there  are  besides  small  lymph  glands  at  various 
parts;  they  are,  however,  not  constant  in  their  position  and  they  also 
vary  in  size. 

Comparative  Anatomy  of  the  Most  Important  Viscera.— Every 
veterinary  inspector  should  be  thoroughly  versed  in  the  anatomical 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS 

FIG.  31 


69 


«V 


Left  hind-quarter  of  steer  with  exposed  prccrunil  and  p  iplitoal  lymph  glands:  a,  M.  gluteus  super- 
ficial., which  fuse  with  b  and  b',  the  M.  biceps  femoris;  c,  popliteal  lymph  gland;  d,  M.  semitendinos.; 
e,  M.  semimembranos. ;  /,  M.  gluteus  medius;  g,  M.  tensor  fasciae  lat.;  h,  M.  cutaneus  maxium.;  i, 
M.  quadriceps  femoris;  I,  precrural  or  kneefold  lymph  gland;  1,  lateral  angle  of  the  ileum  (hip  bone). 


70     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

characteristics  of  the  normal  viscera  of  the  domestic  animals,  and 
therefore/  the  principal  differential  signs  of  certain  viscera  will  be 
briefly  specified  below. 


FIG.  32 


FIG  33 


Median  view  of  the  right  hind-quarter  of  a  hog  Lateral  view  of   the  right   hind-quarter 

with    exposed    precrural    lymph    gland:     1,   pelvic  of    a    hog  with    exposed    popliteal   lymph 

symphysis;  2,  first  sacral  vertebra;  a,  M.  gracilis;  gland  a. 

b,  M.  quadriceps  femor. ;   c,  M.  tensor  fascia  lat.; 

d,  M.  obliquus  intern,  and  transversus  abdominal; 

e,  M.  iliopsoas;  /,  precrural  lymph  gland. 

Tongue. — Cattle:1  Round,  large  body;  mucous  membrane  frequently  shows 
blackish  spots;  the  filiform  papilla?  are  horny,  especially  strong  along  the 
lateral  border;  numerous  fungiform  papillae  mostly  arranged  in  groups  and 
scattered  over  the  entire  dorsum;  28  to  34  circumvallate  papillae,  which  are 
arranged  in  two  rows  in  the  form  of  a  V;  the  foliate  papillae  are  absent;  the 
epiglottis  is  frequently  attached  and  appears  oval.  Sheep  and  Goats:  Similar 
to  cattle;  the  centre  of  the  tip  is  slightly  grooved;  the  papillae  of  the  body  are 
comparatively  even  larger  than  in  cattle  and  are  grouped  into  compact  masses; 
filiform  and  fungiform  papillae  are  also  present  on  the  inferior  surface;  sheep 
have  18  to  24,  while  goats  have  12  circumvallate  papillae.  Hogs:  Long  and 
narrow;  2  circumvallate  papillae  and  numerous  fungiform  papillae  at  the  base; 
long,  soft  papillae  directed  backward;  foliate  papillae  have  mostly  five  cross- 
fissures;  epiglottis  broad,  at  the  free  border  flatly  rounded.  Horses:  Flat, 
even,  long  point;  intense  toughness  of  the  mucous  membrane  in  the  dorsum; 
fungiform  papillae  especially  well  defined  on  the  lateral  surface;  2  circum- 
vallate and  2  foliate  papillae  with  3  to  10  cross-furrows;  epiglottis  leaf -shaped. 
Dogs:  Broad,  flat,  sharp  lateral  borders,  bright  red  color;  under  the  mucous 
membrane  on  the  posterior  surface  is  found  the  flask-shaped  cartilage-like 
body,  the  so-called  lyssa;  long,  soft  papillae  at  the  base;  4  to  6  circumvallate 
papillae;  foliate  papillae  indistinct,  with  5  to  7  cross-fissures;  epiglottis  rhom- 
boidal. 


1  Regarding  the  weight  of  the  liver,  heart,  spleen,  kidneys,  and  lungs  of  cattle,  see  also  page  73. 


MEAT  PROPER  AND  ITS  CONSTITUENTS  71 

Stomach. — The  relation  of  the  stomachs  of  the  ruminants  do  not  require 
special  mention.  Hogs:  Triangular  dilatation  on  the  left  dorsal  end;  cardiac 
portion  funnel-shaped;  the  portion  covered  by  esophageal  mucous  membrane 
is  small;  at  the  elongation  of  the  small  curvature  lies  the  cone-shaped  pylorus, 
which  contains  a  sphincter  muscle.  Horses:  Left  half  of  the  stomach  covered 
by  esophageal  mucous  membrane,  which  is  sharply  separated  by  a  jagged 
border  from  the  glandular  mucous  membrane;  esophageal  orifice  is  slanting, 
with  sphincter  muscle;  double  pyloric  sphincter.  Dogs:  Left  half  round, 
pyloric  part  shaped  like  intestines;  esophageal  orifice  conical,  single  pyloric 
sphincter;  esophageal  region  absent. 

Intestinal  Canal. — In  cattle,  swine,  and  goats  the  colon  is  spirally  coiled 
upon  itself  while  externally  and  ventrally  to  it  lies  the  jejunum  on  a  short 
mesentery,  hanging  in  numerous  convolutions.  In  hogs  the  colon  forms  a 
convolution  the  shape  of  a  nine-pin.  Regarding  the  diameter,  the  colon  of 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  dogs  differs  only  slightly  from  the  small  intestines; 
in  horses  and  hogs  the  colon  is  considerably  larger  than  the  small  intestines. 
Colon  and  cecum  of  the  hog  and  horse  have  longitudinal  muscular  bands  and 
are  sacculated. 

Liver. — Color  is  generally  reddish  brown;  in  fat  animals  and  in  those  of 
advanced  pregnancy  it  is  yellowish  brown.  Cattle:  Indistinctly  three-lobed, 
Spigelian  lobe  rounded  on  the  right  lobe;  falciform  ligament  absent,  and, 
as  a  rule,  the  ligamentum  teres;  gall-bladder  pear-shaped,  extending  a  long 
distance  over  the  ventral  border  of  the  liver;  average  weight,  according  to 
Schmaltz,  J*  of  the  dressed  weight;  in  cattle  of  over  250  kg.,  dressed  weight, 
5  to  6  kg.;  in  lighter  animals,  3  to  4£  kg.  Sheep  and  Goats:  Covering  of  the 
ventral  border  at  the  height  of  the  attachment  of  the  round  ligament  relatively 
deeper  than  in  cattle,  the  lobus  Spigelii  triangular  running  into  a  point;  the 
gall-bladder  appears  similar  to  that  in  cattle;  weight  TTS  of  the  dressed  weight, 
from  375  to  875  grams.  Hogs:  Four  lobes  besides  the  lobus  quadratus  and 
caudatus;  prominent  esophageal  notch,  the  gall-bladder  deep  in  the  right 
portion  of  the  middle  lobe;  the  head  of  the  gall-bladder  does  not  quite  reach 
the  ventral  border  of  the  liver;  the  portal  vein  is  at  the  dorsal  border  of  the 
liver,  more  or  less  surrounded  by  the  liver  parenchyma;  lateral  ligaments 
are  absent;  liver  lobules  are  remarkably  distinct,  due  to  the  rich  develop- 
ment of  the  interlobular  connective  tissue;  weight  A  of  the  dressed  weight, 
^  kg.  Horses:  Three  distinct  lobes,  the  lobus  and  processus  caudatus  running 
into  a  point  (lobus  Spigelii),  deep  esophageal  notches;  gall-bladder  absent; 
average  weight,  5  kg.,  in  old  horse  often  only  2.5  to  3.5  kg.  Dogs:  From  the 
parietal  surface  four  lobes,  and  from  the  visceral  6  lobes  are  noticeable;  deep 
esophageal  notch;  the  cavity  for  the  gall-bladder  is  formed  by  the  right  border 
of  the  lobus  quadratus  and  the  left  border  of  the  right  middle  lobe;  the  head 
of  the  gall-bladder  does  not  reach  the  ventral  border  of  the  liver. 

Pancreas. — Cattle:  Light  yellow  brown  to  reddish-yellow  brown,  free  of 
fat.  Calves  and  Sheep:  Similar  to  cattle;  in  fattened  animals  it  is  lighter  in 
color.  Hogs:  Grayish  yellow,  extensively  intermixed  with  fat.  Horses:  Red- 
dish yellow  to  reddish  gray.  Dogs:  Pale  red. 

Spleen. — Cattle:  Long  and  flat,  uniformly  broad,  with  rounded  edges; 
in  bulls  and  fattened  steers,  reddish  brown;  in  cows,  grayish  blue;  consistence 
in  bulls  and  fattened  steers  quite  dense,  in  the  cow  loose;  the  borders  of  the 
first  are  rounded,  in  the  latter  they  are  sharp.  The  surfaces  in  the  bulls  and 
steers  are  arched;  in  the  cow  flat;  the  follicles  in  the  first  are  larger  (up  to  the 
size  of  hempseed)  than  in  the  latter;  weight  in  animals  dressing  over  250 
kg.,  1  kg. ;  in  those  dressing  below  that  weight,  0.5  to  0.75  kg.  Calves:  Reddish 
brown  to  bluish  violet;  borders  and  surfaces  are  rounded;  consistence  soft. 
Sheep  and  Goats:  Blunt,  angular,  of  the  shape  of  a  palm  of  the  hand;  reddish 
brown;  consistence  soft  to  elastic.  Hogs:  Long  tongue-shaped,  with  the 
exception  of  the  ends,  which  are  almost  uniformly  broad;  cross-section  is  tri- 
angular; pale  red;  consistence  soft,  loose.  Horses:  Flat,  elongated,  triangular, 
and  slightly  bent  in  the  shape  of  a  scythe;  bluish  red,  assuming  a  shade 


72     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

of  reddish  brown;  the  curved  anterior  border  is  thinner  than  the  rounded  pos- 
terior border;  weight,  2'.,  of  the  body  weight,  0.5  to  1.5  kg.  Dogs:  Tongue- 
shaped,  broad  at  the  ventral  extremity;  light  red;  weight,  5^0  to  g^o  of  the 
body  weight. 

Lungs. — Cattle:  Left  lung  has  three  lobes,  cephalic,  cardiac,  and  diaphrag- 
matic; right  lung  four  to  five  lobes;  the  division  of  lobules  is  more  pronounced 
than  in  any  other  food  animal;  intralobular  connective  tissue  is  well  developed. 
Sheep:  Structure  of  lobules  very  indistinct;  in  the  goat,  however,  it  is  more 
distinct.  Hogs:  In  the  left  lung,  two  to  three  lobes  (the  cephalic  lobe,  which 
is  sometimes  divided  and  the  principal  lobe),  the  right  lung  has  four  lobes. 
Horses:  The  left  lung  has  two  lobes  (cephalic  and  principal  lobes);  the  right 
has  three;  lobular  structure  not  very  distinct;  the  bronchial  tube  for  the  cephalic 
lobe  of  right  lung,  which  originates  directly  from  the  trachea,  and  which  is 
present  in  ruminants  and  hogs,  is  absent.  Dogs:  Left  lung  has  three,  right 
lung  has  four  separate  lobes,  the  notches  of  which  extend  up  to  the  principal 
bronchi;  lobular  structure  is  indistinct,  frequently  anthracosis  is  seen. 

Thyroid  Gland. — Cattle:  Two  flat  lobes  connected  by  an  isthmus  which 
is  1  to  1.5  cm.  broad;  structure  lobulated,  light  reddish  brown.  Calves:  Darker, 
isthmus  stronger.  Sheep:  On  each  side  a  thick  brownish-red  lobe,  with  the 
appearance  very  much  like  muscle;  isthmus  very  indistinct.  Hogs:  Connected, 
flat,  not  lobulated,  dark  red.  Horses:  Each  side  portion  roundish,  oval,  of  the 
size  of  a  prune,  reddish  brown,  isthmus  consists  mostly  of  connective  tissue. 
Dogs:  Side  lobe  large,  elongated;  isthmus  in  large  dogs  very  distinct,  in  smaller 
dogs  only  slightly  or  unobservable. 

Thymus  Gland  (Sweetbread,  German  kalbsmilch,  bries,  broschen). — Cattle: 
Divided,  lobulated,  whitish  yellow,  first  disappears  from  the  neck  portion; 
in  the  thorax  even  after  eight  to  nine  years  it  is  plainly  noticeable.  Calves: 
Reaches  up  to  the  larynx;  in  the  first  week  of  life  it  weighs  100  to  200  grams, 
after  four  to  six  weeks,  400  to  600  grams.  Hogs:  Both  cervical  lobes  reach 
to  the  throat,  color  grayish  yellow.  Horses:  Disappears  at  two  to  two  and 
one-half  years.  Dogs:  Flat  body,  which  divides  anteriorly  and  also  posteriorly 
into  two  lobes;  pale  gray;  only  traces  left  after  two  to  three  years. 

Heart. — In  all  animals  reddish  brown;  consistence  firm.  Cattle:  In  the 
fibrous  ring  of  the  aorta  are  two  heart  bones,  which  in  calves  are  cartilaginous 
until  the  fourth  week.  Hogs:  Apex  more  rounded  than  in  sheep;  heart  cartilage 
ossifies  in  older  age,  as  in  the  horse.  Dogs:  Almost  round;  heart  cartilage 
is  absent,  or  is  very  small. 

Kidneys. — Cattle:  Consists  of  16  to  26  lobules,  which  fuse  in  the  deeper 
portion,  and  as  there  are  just  as  many  calices  and  renal  papilla,  there  is  no  true 
pelvis  of  the  kidney;  reddish  brown;  average  weight,  mta  of  the  body  weight, 
952  grams.  Sheep  and  Goats:  Bean-shaped;  not  lobulated,  thick,  arched; 
dark  brown  to  brown;  mutual  renal  papillae  and  pelvis.  Hogs:  Bean-shaped, 
not  lobulated,  flattened;  brown  to  yellow  brown;  10  to  12  renal  papillae;  pelvis 
with  several  calices;  average  wreight,  1^0  of  the  body  weight,  420  grams. 
Horses:  Left  kidney  longer  than  broad  (bean-shaped) ;  the  right  is  triangular, 
flat,  not  lobulated;  brown;  renal  papilla?  are  fused  into  a  crescent  projection; 
kidney  pelvis  has  two  terminal  recesses.  Dogs:  Bean-shaped,  thick,  only 
one  renal  papillae;  reddish  brown;  kidney  pelvis  has  two  terminal  recesses. 

Urinary  Bladder. — Cattle:  Very  large,  almost  entirely  covered  by  the  peri- 
toneum; the  triangular  space  between  the  orifices  of  the  ureters  and  the  urethra 
called  the  trigone,  is  very  small,  hardly  perceptible;  similar  in  sheep,  goats, 
hogs,  and  horses;  covered  by  the  peritoneum  in  the  form  of  a  cap;  mucous 
membrane  contains  noduli  lymphatici.  Dogs:  Roundish,  almost  entirely 
covered  by  peritoneum;  ligamentum  vesico-umbilicale  is  present. 

Uterus. — Cattle:  Two  horns;  from  external  appearances  a  body  is  apparently 
present,  but  actually  it  is  only  1  to  2  cm.  long;  mucous  membrane  forms  cotyl- 
edons. Sheep  and  Goats:  Horns  longer,  at  the  extremities  round-like  intes- 
tines; mucous  membrane  forms  very  small  cotyledons,  which  in  pregnancy 
become  cup-shaped  (uterine  cups);  screw-shaped  folds  in  the  cervix.  Hogs: 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  MEAT  FROM  VARIOUS  ANIMALS     73 

Horns  long,  having  the  appearance  of  small  intestines;  body  short,  5  cm.  long; 
the  cervix  proper  is  absent;  mucous  membrane  on  the  corresponding  place 
in  the  form  of  oblique  rolls  (pads);  mucous  membrane  in  thin  folds.  Horses: 
Two  horns,  very  long  body  (13  to  15  cm.),  prominent  cervix  with  close  folds 
of  the  mucous  membrane  arranged  lengthwise.  Dogs:  Long,  straight  horns, 
short  body,  with  a  strong  muscle  wall  for  a  cervix. 

Ovaries.  —  Cattle:  Oval,  flat,  with  a  large  ovulation  surface.  Sheep  and 
Goats:  Roundish,  relatively  large.  Hogs:  Roundish,  nodular,  like  a  black- 
berry, more  or  less  enveloped  by  the  ovarian  sac.  Horses:  Almost  bean- 
shaped,  dense,  entirely  covered  by  peritoneum,  up  to  the  notches  of  the 
ovulation  grooves.  Dogs:  Elongated,  has  no  notches,  enveloped  by  ovarian 
sac  and  fat. 

Mammae.  —  Cattle:  Four  quarters,  with  one  teat  each,  which  has  only  one 
opening;  parenchyma  gray  to  whitish  red.  Sheep:  Two  halves,  each  has  one 
small  teat  with  one  opening.  Goats:  Two  large,  loose-hanging  halves,  each 
having  a  strong  teat  which  is  turned  forward,  and  has  one  opening.  Hogs: 
The  mammae  extends  from  the  vulva  to  the  sternum,  and  has  5  to  6  divisions 
on  each  side,  each  having  one  teat,  which  contains  one  or  two  openings;  the 
parenchyma  is  richly  intermixed  with  fat.  Horses:  Two  elongated  round 
halves,  each  having  one  flat  triangular  teat,  which  has  two  openings;  paren- 
chyma, whitish  red.  Dogs:  As  in  the  hog,  on  each  side  there  are  4  to  5  divisions, 
each  having  one  teat,  the  point  of  which  is  pierced  by  8  to  12  openings,  like 
a  sieve. 


Schneider  undertook  to  investigate  the  absolute  and  relative  weight 
of  the  heart,  lungs,  liver,  kidneys,  and  spleen  of  cattle,  the  results 
of  which  are  compiled  in  the  following  table  : 


Absolute  average 
weight  in 

'  Relative  average  weight. 

To  the  live  weight 
of  the  animal. 

To  the  dressed 
weight  of  the  carcass. 

B 

Kg. 

7.607 
3.012 
1.155 
0.727 
3.930 

to 

3 
W 

5 

1 

Heifers. 

.    E 

4) 

-2 

CO 

"3 
« 

i 

6 

Heifers. 

e 

• 

1 

t 

6 

Heifers. 

Liver  ...            .... 
Heart         
Spleen       .      .            .... 
Kidneys    .      .            .... 
Lungs        .      .            .... 

Kg. 

5.947 
2.592 
0.878 
0.613 
3.330 

Kg. 

5.497 
2.205 
0.789 
0.617 
2.990 

Kg. 

4.787 
1.890 
0.744 
0.497 
2.657 

Per 
cent. 

1.038 
0.414 
0.159 
0.100 
0.541 

Per 
cent. 

1.023 
0.442 
0.152 
0.105 
0.560 

Per 
cent. 

1.206 
0.492 
0.171 
0.129 
0.653 

Per 
cent. 

1.156 
0.457 
0.163 
0.115 
0.660 

Per     Per 

cent.  cent. 

1.8251.924 
0.727  0.835 
0.278  0.285 
0.1760.199 
0.950  1.056 

Per 
cent. 

2.531 
0.997 
0.356 
0.278 
1.326 

Per 

cent. 

2.203 
0.875 
0.334 
0.235 
1.102 

Accordingly  the  absolute  weight  of  the  5  organs  averages  the  highest  in 
steers,  and  gradually  diminishes  from  the  steers  to  the  heifers.  The  relative 
weight  averages  the  smallest  in  steers  and  increases  from  the  steers  to  the 
heifers  and  cows. 


PECULIARITIES    OF   THE   MEAT   FROM   VARIOUS   ANIMALS 


Meat  and  fat  of  all  animal  species  possess  certain  peculiarities  which 
are  more  or  less  influenced  by  breed,  sex,  age,  feeding,  and  condition 
of  health  of  the  respective  animals,  and  thus  they  fluctuate  within 
certain  limits. 


74     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

Beef. — Generally  beef  shows  a  saturated  red  color  with  a  slight 
tint  of  brown;  it  has  a  firm  consistency  and  its  cut  surface  is  shiny. 
The  odor  is  characteristic  and  the  meat  is  generally  intermingled  with 
fat.  The  connective  tissue  is  white  and  soft.  After  chilling,  the  fat 
shows  quite  a  firm  consistence,  a  white  to  yellow  color,  and  a  peculiar 
odor.  In  old  cattle  the  fat  assumes  a  more  yellowish  color,  and  is 
looser  in  consistency.  Intensive  yellow  coloration  of  the  fat  may 
also  be  met  in  pasture-fed  cattle.  Rich  feeding  with  slop,  oil  cake, 
acorn  cake,  or  cottonseed  meal  produces  a  soft,  loose,  yellow  fat. 
The  bone  marrow  is  pure  white  to  reddish  yellow,  and  of  a  moderately 
firm  consistence.  Fattened  steers  up  to  six  years  old  have  bright, 
dark  brick  red  meat,  which  is  moderately  coarse  in  fiber,  and  which 
as  a  result  of  the  intermixing  with  fat  has  a  marbled  shiny  appearance 
on  its  cut  surface.  The  fat  is  white  to  whitish  yellow  and  firm. 

The  meat  and  fat  of  fattened  calves  and  fattened  young  cows  up 
to  the  age  of  seven  years  appear  similar  to  that  of  fattened  steers. 

The  meat  of  old  milch  cows  shows,  as  a  rule,  a  lighter  coloration 
and  coarser  fibers;  the  connective  tissue  stands  out  more  prominently 
and  is  close  in  texture  or  flabby,  and  contains  more  moisture.  The 
fat  is  yellow,  even  to  an  intensive  lemon  yellow  color,  and  appears 
less  firm  and  intermixed  only  in  small  amounts  with  the  meat.  It 
is  more  abundant  in  the  subcutaneous  tissues,  mesentery,  peritoneum, 
and  kidney  capsule.  The  odor  of  cow  meat  sometimes  resembles  the 
odor  of  cow  milk  (Baranski). 

Young  cattle  possess  a  loose,  fine-fibered  meat  of  a  pale  to  light 
brick  red  color  only  slightly  intermingled  with  fat.  The  fat  is  white 
and  firm. 

In  older  bulls  the  meat  is  dark  copper  red  in  color,  coarse  fibered, 
tough,  poor  in  fat,  and  dry.  In  large  masses,  and  especially  where 
the  muscles  are  covered  by  a  fascia,  the  meat  has  a  light  bluish 
hue;  the  fat  is  white.  The  dried  surface  of  the  meat  of  older  bulls 
appears  very  dark  and  the  butchers  designate  it  as  "black."  The 
meat  of  young  fattened  bulls  differs  only  slightly  from  that  of  fattened 
steers,  with  the  exception  of  showing  coarser  fibers. 

The  disagreeable  odor  of  bull  meat,  which  was  observed  by  Goltz,  and  which 
resembles  the  effluvium  of  the  live  bull,  appears  relatively  rare.  The  subject 
of  sexual  odor  of  meat  is  further  treated  in  Chapter  VII,  p.  194. 

Veal. — The  meat  of  calves  slaughtered  at  an  age  from  two  to  four 
weeks  is  generally  pale,  gray  to  grayish  red,  has  fine,  somewhat  tough 
fibers,  and  is  not  intermixed  with  fat.  The  consistency  is  from  moder- 
ately firm  to  loose.  The  odor  is  specific;  in  calves  which  have  been 
slaughtered  for  a  long  period  (old  slaughter)  it  is  slightly  sour.  The 
fat  is  reddish  yellow  to  white  yellow,  or  pure  white,  loose,  and  greasy. 
The  bone  marrow  is  pink  red.  Older  fattened  calves  show  a  darker 
redder,  tougher  meat,  which  in  the  so-called  "double  loined  calves 
or  sturgeon  calves,"  is  poor  in  fat  and  dry.  Veal  in  general  contains 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  MEAT  FROM  VARIOUS  ANIMALS      75 

more  water  and  gelatin-forming  substances;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
poorer  in  muscle  albumen  than  beef. 

Concerning  the  meat  of  immature  calves  see  Chapter  VII. 

Mutton. — Mutton  (sheep  meat)  is  distinguished  by  the  firm,  dense, 
fine  fibers  and  its  dark  red  color.  Its  consistence  is  moderately  firm. 
The  odor  is  specific,  slightly  ammoniacal,  sometimes  resembling  the 
odor  of  a  sheep  stable.  The  muscles  are  not  intermixed  with  fat. 
In  fattened  animals,  however,  there  are  rich  deposits  of  fat  between 
the  groups  of  muscles,  and  especially  in  the  subcutis  and  the  kidney 
capsule.  The  fat  is  pure  white,  hard,  firm,  brittle,  and  has  no  odor. 
The  bone  marrow  is  firm  and  slightly  red. 

Goat  Meat. — Goat  meat  is  in  general  paler  than  sheep  meat.  The 
fat  and  bone  marrow  simulate  that  of  sheep.  The  fat  is  chiefly  located 
in  the  kidney  capsules,  while  in  the  subcutis  it  is  only  present  in  small 
quantities.  The  muscles  also  contain  only  a  little  fat.  The  odor  of 
the  meat  and  fat  is  peculiarly  strong,  resembling  the  odor  of  the  living 
goat;  it  is  especially  disagreeable  and  repulsive  (see  Chapter  VII,  p.  194). 

Pork. — In  hogs,  age,  nutritive  condition,  and  the  particular  body 
region  influence  the  color  of  the  meat  considerably,  which  appears 
whitish  gray,  pale  red,  gray  red  to  dark  red.  The  fibers  are  fine,  the 
consistence  soft  to  moderately  firm,  and  the  odor  indefinable.  It 
is  considerably  intermixed  with  fat,  which  also  envelops  the  larger 
groups  of  muscles.  The  fat  is  pure  white,  finely  granular,  and  soft. 
The  bone  marrow  is  soft  and  pink  red. 

On  boiling  pork  becomes  whitish  gray  and  is  then  much  lighter  than 
the  meat  of  other  food  animals. 

In  animals  fattened  with  corn,  the  fat  assumes  a  yellowish  color,  and  in  those 
fed  on  fish,  a  gray  color.  Feeding  with  acorns  yields  a  more  oily  fat.  Feeding 
fish  gives  the  fat  a  fishy  odor. 

In  older  sows  kept  for  breeding,  and  stags  (boars  castrated  after  they  have 
matured),  the  meat  is  dark  red,  poor  in  fat,  and  firm. 

The  odor  of  the  meat  from  boars  and  cryptorchids  is  more  or  less  repulsive, 
resembling  urine.  It  is  frequently  perceptible  on  the  fresh  meat,  but  some- 
times it  appears  only  in  cooking  or  roasting.  (See  Chapter  VII,  p.  194.) 

Horse  Meat. — Horse  meat  is  marked  by  its  dark  red  or  even  brown 
color.  When  exposed  to  the  air  it  has  a  bluish  luster,  and  even  becomes 
blackish  red  to  black.  The  fibers  are  very  fine,  the  consistence  is 
firm,  and  fasciae  are  very  prominent.  There  is  no  intermixing  of  fat 
in  the  muscles.  The  odor  is  peculiar,  sweet,  and  almost  repulsive. 
The  fat  is  soft,  oily,  and  light  gold  to  dark  yellow  in  color,  but  in  well- 
nourished  horses  it  is  whiter  and  firmer.  The  bone  marrow  is  wax 
yellow,  greasy,  and  soft,  but  becomes  stiffened  in  the  air. 

Dog  Meat. — Generally  the  meat  of  dogs  is  dark  red,  firm  fibered, 
and  only  slightly  intermixed  with  fat,  which  occurs  chiefly  between 
the  groups  of  the  muscles  and  in  the  subcutis.  The  consistence  of  the 
meat  is  soft  and  smeary;  the  odor  is  disagreeably  repulsive.  The 
color  of  the  fat  is  white  to  white  gray,  and  its  consistence  oily  and 
greasy. 


76     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

Rabbit  Meat. — The  meat  of  rabbits  is  distinguished  by  its  pale 
red,  gray  red,  and  gray  color.  The  fibers  are  fine;  the  fat  in  the  muscles 
is  absent,  and  the  consistence  loose.  The  fat  is  whitish  yellow,  and 
is  principally  confined  to  the  body  cavities. 

Poultry  Meat. — The  muscular  tissues  of  fowls  are  firm,  fine  fibered, 
and  without  intermixing  with  fat.  The  color  of  the  preponderating 
meat  is  pale;  however,  there  are  also  red  muscles.  Generally  the  meat 
of  chickens,  capons,  and  turkeys  is  called  white,  while  that  of  geese, 
ducks,  and  pigeons  is  considered  as  dark.  The  consistence  is  prin- 
cipally firm  and  the  alkalinity  subsists  after  slaughter  for  a  long  time 
(Postolka  and  Toscano).  Odor  and  taste  vary  in  accordance  with 
the  species  and  feeding.  The  fat  content  of  the  muscles  proper  is 
very  small,  except  in  the  case  of  the  fattened  fowl.  The  fat  is  very 
variable  in  its  consistence,  color,  and  odor;  generally,  however,  it  is 
soft  and  oily.  In  chemical  composition  (page  55)  the  meat  contains 
few  lime-forming  substances,  but  considerable  albumen. 

Meat  of  Game. — The  general  characteristics  of  the  flesh  of  fowls 
may  be  applied  to  the  meat  of  game,  but  the  color  is  always  darker, 
shading  from  red  to  brownish  red.  The  odor  and  taste  are  peculiar 
to  each  kind  of  game.  Meat  of  animals  which  were  exhausted  in  the 
chase  before  death,  or  which  were  injured  by  shot  and  had  to  endure 
a  long  agony,  is  said  to  be  bitter  in  taste;  moreover,  the  greater  content 
of  blood  in  the  meat  of  game  should  be  considered.  This,  however, 
apparently  does  not  influence  its  keeping  qualities  to  any  extent, 
although  it  does  in  the  case  of  the  meat  of  other  animals. 

Regarding  its  chemical  composition  (page  55),  what  was  said  about 
the  meat  of  fowls  applies  to  the  meat  of  game. 

Fish  Meat. — The  color  of  fish  meat  is  white;  only  few  fish  have 
red  meat  (salmon,  trout).  The  structure  is  peculiar,  inasmuch  as  the 
entire  muscular  mass  of  each  side  of  the  fish  consists  of  a  single  muscle 
plate  (side  muscle),  which  is  divided  by  a  long  furrow  into  a  dorsal 
and  ventral  part.  Each  side  muscle  consists  of  a  large  number  of 
muscle  plates  (myomeres),  which  are  separated  by  thin,  connective- 
tissue  membranes,  and  which  easily  fall  apart,  especially  in  boiling. 
The  odor  and  taste,  which  principally  depend  on  the  consistence  of 
the  fat,  have  no  characteristic  features.  Taste,  however,  is  principally 
influenced  by  the  food  of  the  fish.  The  meat  of  fish  of  prey  is  better 
in  taste  than  that  of  those  which  seek  their  food  in  the  mud.  In  the 
same  way  the  season,  especially  the  spawning  period,  influences  the 
taste  of  the  meat  not  inconsiderably.  Lichtenfelt,  in  a  study  of  the 
periodical  changes  of  the  consistence  of  meat  of  various  kinds  of  fish, 
found  that  during  the  spawning  period  the  albumen  diminishes  in  the 
side  body  muscles  in  females  from  17.5  per  cent,  to  13.3  per  cent., 
and  in  males  from  17.9  to  19  per  cent,  to  13  to  14.3  per  cent.  In 
a  still  larger  degree  the  fat  contents  of  the  muscles  decrease.  The 
fat,  when  present,  is  finely  distributed  in  the  meat. 

In  chemical  composition  the  fish  meat  contains  a  larger  quantity 
of  water  than  that  of  mammals.  This,  however,  is  considerably  reduced 


FRAUDULENT  SUBSTITUTIONS  FOR  MEAT  77 

in  fish  which  are  rich  in  fat  to  the  advantage  of  the  fat  contents  (eel 
meat  55  to  60  per  cent,  of  water).  Of  the  nitrogenous  constituents, 
the  extractive  and  glue-forming  substances  amount  to  one-third. 
The  supposition  that  fish  meat  is  not  as  satiating  as  other  meat  appears 
to  be  contradicted  by  Rosenfeld's  investigations. 

For  the  poisonous  effects  of  some  fish,  see  Chapter  X,  page  347. 

Meat  of  Crustaceans  and  Mollusks. — In  these  animals  the  muscles 
are  white  or  white  gray.  Consistence,  odor,  and  taste  vary  greatly 
There  is  a  remarkably  slight  amount  of  fat.  For  the  chemical  compo- 
sition see  page  55. 

Meat  of  Reptiles  and  Amphibians. — The  meat  of  frogs  and  turtles 
is  always  of  a  pale  color,  usually  white,  yellowish  gray,  yellowish  or 
yellowish  red.  The  fat  content  is  limited  and  slight.  For  the  chemical 
composition,  see  page  55. 


FRAUDULENT   SUBSTITUTIONS  FOR  MEAT  AND   THEIR 
RECOGNITION 

In  the  handling  of  meats  and  the  preparation  of  meat-food  products 
attempts  are  sometimes  made  to  substitute  meat  of  a  lesser  quality 
for  that  of  higher  quality.  To  detect  such  frauds  frequently  causes 
the  expert  considerable  trouble,  and  not  infrequently,  especially  in 
prepared  meat-food  products,  it  is  altogether  impossible. 

If  bones  are  present  in  the  suspected  meat,  they  should  be  taken 
for  comparison,  and  all  other  characteristic  peculiarities  of  the  meat 
and  fat,  which  have  been  already  described  for  the  individual  species 
of  animals,  should  be  considered.  Relative  to  the  manifold  differ- 
ences in  the  skeleton,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  text-books 
on  comparative  anatomy  of  the  domestic  animals. 

Differentiation  of  Meats  by  Biological  Method. — For  distinguishing 
the  various  kinds  of  meats  from  a  scientific  standpoint  the  biological 
method  deserves  the  greatest  consideration.  The  method  is  based 
on  the  formation  of  precipitins  in  the  blood  serum  of  animals  (for 
instance,  rabbits),  which  received  for  a  certain  time  intraperitoneally 
blood  serum  or  meat  juice  of  other  animals  (for  instance,  horses). 
If,  then,  such  blood  serum  of  rabbits  is  added  to  the  blood  serum  or 
meat  juice  of  the  horse,  a  cloudiness  will  develop  in  the  latter  which 
results  in  a  precipitate.  This  reaction  appears  only  with  the  blood 
serum  or  meat  juice  of  the  same  species  of  animal  which  was  employed 
for  the  preparatory  treatment  of  the  rabbit,  and  from  which  the  serum 
which  supplies  the  precipitating  serum  originated.  The  reaction  is, 
therefore,  a  specific  precipitation. 

The  method  was  first  employed  by  Uhlenhuth,  Wassermann,  and 
Schiitz  for  the  recognition  of  human  blood,  and  later  improvements 
by  Jess,  Uhlenhuth,  Miessner  and  Herbst,  Notel,  v.  Rigler,  Groning, 
Borschmann  and  others  made  it  applicable  for  use  on  meats.  The 
biological  method  can  be  applied  to  fresh  meat,  and  also  to  dried, 


78     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

pickled,  and  salt  meat  as  well  as  for  distinguishing  meat  mixtures, 
bones,  and  viscera.  On  the  other  hand,  the  method  does  not  prove 
satisfactory  for  the  differentiation  of  cooked  meats.  For  distinguishing 
horse  meat  from  beef  the  biological  method  is  successful,  but  whether 
the  application  of  the  same  will  prove  unobjectionable  on  the  meat 
of  other  animals,  which  zoologically  are  in  closer  relation,  is  yet  to 
be  determined.  The  production  of  the  sera  and  meat  extracts  and  the 
procedure  of  the  reaction  are  accompanied  by  various  difficulties  and 
require  certain  precautions.  Therefore  the  application  of  the  bio- 
logical method  presumes  great  skill,  and  is  accordingly  adapted  only 
for  scientific  institutions  and  for  larger  meat-inspection  bureaus  con- 
ducted by  veterinarians.  Owing  to  the  technique  and  the  numerous 
details  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  test,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  original  works  for  a  full  description.  Whether  Neisser- 
Sachs'  so-called  "  diverting  method"  may  also  be  utilized  in  the  differ- 
entiation of  the  various  kinds  of  meat  is  yet  to  be  determined. 

Differentiation  between  Meats  from  Various  Species  of  Animals.— 
Other  differentiating  indications  between  the  species  which  occa- 
sionally may  appear  for  comparison  are  described  in  the  following: 

Sheep  and  Goat. — In  comparing  the  whole  slaughtered  carcass  the 
goat  appears  to  have  longer  bones,  especially  in  the  flank,  than  the 
sheep.  The  latter  has  a  round  back  and  a  fleshy,  rounded  croup, 
while  the  goat  manifests  a  sharp  back  and  a  sloping  croup.  Goats 
usually  have  a  shorter  tail  (12  caudal  vertebrae)  than  sheep  (18  to  24 
caudal  vertebras);  however,  there  are  also  short-tailed  (12  to  16  caudal 
vertebras)  and  tailless  breeds  of  sheep  (3  caudal  vertebras).  The  thorax 
of  the  goat  is  flat,  that  of  the  sheep  is  barrel-shaped.  On  the  somewhat 
sticky  surface  of  the  slaughtered  goat  frequently  goat  hairs  are  found 
adhering;  the  skin  muscles  of  goats  are  darker  than  those  of  sheep. 
The  subcutis  of  goats  contains  less  fat  and  the  muscles  are  not 
enveloped  in  fat  to  the  extent  that  they  are  in  sheep.  The  meat  has 
a  characteristic  odor,  especially  pronounced  in  males.  Of  the  skeletal 
peculiarities  it  should  be  noted  that  all  bones  of  goats  in  general  are 
more  slender  in  form  than  those  of  sheep.  In  the  skull  of  the  goat 
the  external  lacrymal  notch  is  absent  while  it  is  present  in  sheep. 
The  spinal  processes  of  the  cervical  vertebras  are,  according  to  Biitzler, 
long,  pointed,  and  sharp-edged  in  the  goat,  while  in  the  sheep  they 
are  broad  and  dull.  There  are  at  least  4  sacral  vertebras  in  the  goat, 
never  3,  as  occasionally  in  sheep.  The  lateral  sacral  borders  of  the 
goat  are  thin  and  sharp;  in  the  sheep  they  are  thickened  in  the  form 
of  rolls.  The  pelvic  opening  is  considerably  smaller  in  the  goat  than 
in  the  sheep.  The  scapula  in  the  sheep  is  broad  and  short;  the  well- 
developed  spine  has  in  the  centre  a  round  thickening  which  is  bent 
backward  in  a  bow.  In  goats  the  scapular  spine  is  flat  and  straight; 
the  neck  of  the  scapula  is  distinctly  outlined.  The  tibia  in  the  sheep 
is  strongly  turned  spirally,  and  its  posterior  surface  is  concave.  The 
bones  of  the  goat  are,  according  to  Lohoff,  harder  and  more  brittle 
than  the  bones  of  the  sheep. 


FRAUDULENT  SUBSTITUTIONS  FOR  MEAT  79 

Sheep,  Goat,  and  Deer. — The  conformation  of  the  bones  in  deer  is 
always  more  slender  and  neater  than  in  the  sheep  or  goat.  The  cervical 
vertebrae  of  deer  are  longer  than  in  sheep  and  goat  compared  to  the 
size  of  the  animals.  The  spinal  processes  of  the  dorsal  vertebrae  of 
the  deer  are  turned  forward,  beginning  at  the  third;  on  the  lumbar 
vertebrae  they  are  elongated  forward  in  the  form  of  a  sharp  hook, 
which  in  sheep  is  considerably  smaller.  In  the  scapula  of  the  deer 
the  acromion  is  elongated  into  a  sharp  point,  which  is  directed  ventrally; 
it  is  absent  in  the  sheep  and  goat,  or  is  considerably  smaller.  The 
radio-ulnar  arch  which  forms  an  oval  opening  in  the  sheep  and  goat 
is  very  long  in  the  deer.  The  lacrymal  bone  in  the  deer  is  also  deeply 
grooved,  but  its  surface  appears  incomplete.  In  the  deer  the  subcuta- 
neous layer  of  fat  is  not  as  w^ll  developed  as  in  the  sheep;  the  meat 
is  poor  in  fat  and  possesses  the  odor  of  venison,  which  is  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  odor  of  sheep. 

Smith  pointed  out  the  difference  between  goat  hair  and  deer  hair.  In  the 
first  the  cortical  substance  in  the  microscopic  picture  is  as  broad  as  the  marrow 
substance,  while  deer  hair  is  characterized  by  the  remarkable  development 
of  the  marrow  substance.  The  cortical  layer  in  deer  hair  is  almost  unrecogniz- 
able, so  that  the  hair  appears  to  be  a  cylinder  entirely  made  up  of  polyhedral 
cells.  The  hair  of  elk  and  chamois  has  also  a  similar  structure. 

According  to  Stadies,  the  kidneys  of  deer  can  only  be  positively  distinguished 
from  those  of  the  sheep  with  the  aid  of  an  anatomical  fluid  injected  into  the 
pelvis  of  the  kidneys.  The  pelvis  of  the  kidney  is  injected  with  a  solution 
of  celloidin,  rosin,  and  turpentine  in  alcoholic  ether;  after  the  stiffening  of 
the  solution  the  kidney  is  placed  into  hydrochloric  acid,  which  in  a  few  days 
completely  destroys  the  kidney  substance.  The  cast  from  the  pelvis  of  the 
deer  kidney  is  small  and  oval  without  any  bulgings,  while  that  from  the  pelvis 
of  sheep  shows  long  prolongations. 

Hog  and  Dog. — Besides  the  manifold  differences  in  the  skeleton, 
which  are  described  in  text-books  on  anatomy,  it  may  be  also  noted 
that  the  color  of  dog  meat  is  much  darker  than  hog  meat,  and  this 
difference  can  be  especially  observed  in  the  cooked  flesh  (see  page  75). 

The  muscles  of  dog  meat  are  more  smeary  and  the  fat  is  more  oily 
than  in  the  hog;  the  odor  is  entirely  different. 

Rabbit  (Hare)  and  Cat. — The  following  differences  in  the  skeleton 
are  especially  to  be  noted :  The  lateral  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebrae 
which  are  directed  forward,  terminate  in  the  rabbit  (Fig.  34)  in  two 
extensions,  one  of  which  is  directed  forward,  the  other  backward;  in 
the  cat  they  terminate  in  a  point.  The  body  of  the  first  three  lumbar 
vertebrae  in  the  rabbit  contains  thorn-shaped  ventral  processes  (Fig. 
34  a).  The  ribs  of  the  rabbit  are  flat  and  broad;  those  of  the  cat  are 
rounded.  On  the  scapula  of  the  rabbit  the  acromion  turns  around 
posteriorly  and  terminates  in  a  long  point,  which  is  directed  back- 
ward (Fig.  37).  The  radius  and  ulna  are  completely  separated  in  the 
cat  (Fig.  35);  in  the  rabbit  they  are  united  (Fig.  36).  On  the  humerus 
of  the  cat  is  an  elongated  fissure  over  the  median  condyle  of  the  distal 
end  (Fig.  39).  The  femur  of  the  rabbit  (Fig.  41)  contains  below  the 
trochanter  major  a  specially  strong  smaller  trochanter,  which  is  absent 


80     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL  TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

in  the  cat  (Fig.  42).  Fibia  and  fibula  are  complete  in  the  cat  (Fig. 
43) ;  in  the  rabbit  (Fig.  44)  they  are  only  separated  in  the  upper  half. 
The  whole  carcass  of  the  cat  can  be  immediately  recognized  by 
its  head,  penis  bone,  and  the  tail,  and  for  these  reasons,  if  offered  for 
sale,  these  parts  are  always  removed  on  the  slaughtered  animal. 
Rabbits  generally  have  the  shot  wounds,  but  these  are  naturally  absent 
in  the  slaughtered  domesticated  rabbits.  The  meat  of  the  cat  is  paler 
than  rabbit  meat;  the  fat  of  the  cat  appears  whitish  in  contrast  to 
rabbit  fat,  which  is  honey  yellow. 


FIG.  35 


FIG.  36 


FIG.  37 


FIG.  38 


Lumbar  verte-         Right   forearm         Right  fore-         Right  scapula  of 
brae,  with  ventral     of  the  cat,  inside     arm  of  rabbit,  the  rabbit, 

spinal  processes.      view.  inside  view. 


Right  scapula  of  the 
cat. 


Hare  and  Rabbit. — The  cervical  vertebrae  in  the  hare  are,  according  to 
Lesbre,  shorter  than  those  of  the  rabbit.  The  spinal  processes  of  the  dorsal 
vertebrae  in  the  rabbit  are  slightly  turned  backward,  and  they  do  not  have 
the  hook-shaped  extensions  which  are  present  in  the  hare.  The  well-marked 
bifurcations  of  the  ends  of  the  lateral  processes  of  the  lumbar  vertebras 
in  the  hare  are  only  perceptible  on  the  first  lumbar  vertebra  of  the  rabbit. 
The  sacrum  of  the  hare  consists  of  four  united  vertebrae;  the  spinal  pro- 
cesses are  all  united.  In  the  rabbit  the  sacrum  is  narrower  than  in  the 
hare.  The  ribs  and  scapula  are  longer  in  the  hare  than  in  the  rabbit.  The 


FRAUDULENT  SUBSTITUTIONS  FOR  MEAT 


81 


spine  of  the  scapula  lays  considerably  nearer  to  the  anterior  border  of  this 
bone  in  the  rabbit.  The  acromion  of  the  hare  terminates  suddenly  at  the 
attachment  of  the  processus  hamatus,  while  in  the  rabbit  it  continues  for 
3  to  5  mm.  in  a  long  point  (Fig.  37).  Upper  arm  is  larger  in  the  hare  than  in 
the  rabbit.  The  radius  is  longer  in  the  hare  than  in  the  rabbit;  the  middle 
part  is  cylindrical  in  the  latter,  while  in  the  former  it  is  considerably  flattened. 
The  ulna  of  the  hare  becomes  gradually  thinner  at  the  distal  end,  and  proceeds 
almost  entirely  behind  the  volar  surface  of  the  radius;  in  the  rabbit,  on  the 
other  hand,  it  is  well  developed  in  the  entire  length,  and  lays  almost  com- 
pletely on  the  lateral  surface  of  the  radius.  With  the  hind  legs  there  is  no 
perceptible  difference. 


FIG.  39 


FIG.  40 


FIG.  41 


FIG.  42 


FIG.  43 


FIG.  44 


Right  hum-        Right  hume-         Right    femur       Right  femur  Right  tibia  and         Right  tibia 

erus     of     cat,     rus  of  rabbit.       of  rabbit,  front  of  cat.  fibula  of  cat,  front      and  fibula  of 

front  view.  and  inside  view.  view.  rabbit. 


Cattle  and  Horses. — In  the  horse  the  greater  length  of  the  extremities 
and  of  the  thorax  appears  in  marked  contrast  to  the  size  of  these  parts 
in  cattle,  while  in  the  latter,  on  the  other  hand,  the  pelvis  is  longer 
than  that  of  the  horse.  The  characteristics  of  the  meat  were  discussed 
on  page  74.  The  numerous  osteological  differences  must  be  left  uncon- 
sidered.  It  is  seldom  necessary  to  pass  an  opinion  on  large  pieces  of 
meat;  it  is  much  more  frequently  necessary  to  determine  the  presence 
of  horse  meat  which  has  been  prepared  for  food,  especially  in  sausage. 
Until  a  few  years  ago  it  was  impossible  to  prove  this  with  any  degree 
of  positiveness.  Niebel's  work,  however,  has  developed  a  scientific 
method  for  an  accurate  test  for  horse  meat.  He  constantly  found  in 
horse  meat  considerable  quantities  of  glycogen  (0.373  to  1.072  per 
6 


82     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

cent.),  the  smallest  amount  of  which  surpasses  the  quantity  found  in 
the  meat  of  other  animals.1 

For  the  demonstration  of  glycogen  Niebel  employed  Briicke's  method  with 
Kulz's  modification,  which  is  also  prescribed  with  some  changes  by  the  regula- 
tions of  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  for  the  horse-meat  test. 

It  is  certain  that  superior  to  the  Brucke-Kiilz  method  are  those  of  Pfliiger 
and  Pfliiger-Nerking,  by  which  Martin  has  proved  that  the  results  gave  from 
22  to  25  per  cent,  higher  values  than  the  former.  Besides  it  was  found  by 
Frassi,  Hefelmann,  and  Mautz  and  others  that  the  glycogen  content  of  the 
muscles  of  the  horse  varies  considerably  in  the  various  parts  of  the  body; 
the  smallest  quantity  of  glycogen  was  always  found  in  the  muscles  of  mastica- 
tion (0.047  to  0.24  per  cent.),  while  in  the  back  and  thigh  muscles  it  was  found 
as  high  as  10.8  per  cent,  in  the  dry  substance  free  from  fat. 

Further,  Niebel  found  that  the  glycogen  in  the  horse  is  converted 
after  a  certain  time  into  grape  sugar.  In  such  cases  he  established 
the  presence  of  the  sugar  in  horse  meat  by  a  special  method  with  the 
aid  of  Fehling's  solution.  In  this  connection  it  must  also  be  remembered 
that  meat,  and  especially  meat  products,  contain  reductive  substances, 
i.  e.,  creatinin;  further,  that  the  quantity  of  carbohydrates  is  increased 
in  the  sausage  by  the  addition  of  spices,  also  by  starch  flour  which  is 
sometimes  deliberately  added  to  the  substance  of  certain  sausages. 
If  no  addition  of  carbohydrates  is  made,  and  it  is  determined  by  NiebePs 
comparative  test  that  the  meat  or  sausage  contains  at  least  1  per  cent, 
carbohydrate,  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  fat-free  dry  substance, 
then  it  is  evident  that  the  product  contains  horse  meat.2  In  the  horse- 
meat  sausages  examined  the  confirmed  quantity  of  carbohydrates 
exceeded  eleven  times  the  maximum  content  of  carbohydrates  of 
ordinary  sausage. 

It  is  known  that  the  meat  of  dogs,  cats,  fetuses,  and  starved  calves 
contains  also  a  large  amount  of  glycogen.  The  first  two  species  of 
animals  do  not  come  under  consideration  in  connection  with  falsifica- 
tion of  sausage,  etc.  When  larger  quantities  of  fetal  or  starved  calf 
meat  are  added  the  sausages  have  not  the  characteristic  brown-red 
color  which  is  given  to  them  by  the  presence  of  horse  meat.  Niebel 
attaches  so  much  importance  to  the  brown-red  color  that  he  considers 
the  presence  of  horse  meat  established  if,  besides  the  determination 
of  glycogen,  this  color  is  present.  While  the  observations  of  Niebel 
have  been  confirmed  by  other  investigators,  nevertheless  it  has  been 
established  by  Nerking,  Pfliiger,  and  Rusche  that  the  meat  of  well- 
nourished  cattle  may  contain  in  the  fresh  state  the  same  quantity  of 
glycogen  as  horse  meat,  and  Pfliiger  also  determined  that  meat  from 
horses  in  poor  nutritive  condition  may  occasionally  be  free  from  glycogen 
or  have  only  traces  of  it.  In  consequence  of  these  findings,  and  also 
on  account  of  the  high  content  of  glycogen  in  fetuses  and  immature 
calves,  it  is  necessary  to  employ  a  supplemental  method  besides  the 

1  This  statement  of  Niebel  cannot  be  sustained,  according  to  Rusche. 

2  The  quantitative  glycogen  analysis  in  connection  with  Niebel's  determining  method  is  exact, 
according  to  Rusche. 


FRAUDULENT  SUBSTITUTIONS  FOR  MEAT  83 

glycogen  test  for  the  positive  determination  of  the  presence  of  horse 
meat,  and  for  these  reasons  only  the  biological  test  can  be  accepted 
as  positive. 

For  the  quick  determination  of  horse  meat  in  a  meat  product, 
Brautigam  and  Edelmann  successfully  tried  and  adopted  a  method 
based  on  Niebel's  investigations.  It  depends  on  the  characteristic 
color  reaction  of  glycogen  with  iodine,  which  was  first  described  by 
Claude  Bernard.  The  method  is  as  follows: 

1.  A  small  quantity  of  the  meat  (50  grams)  to  be  examined  is  finely  cut 
and  boiled  in  four  times  its  volume  of  water  for  one  hour,  and  the  resulting 
bouillon  is  treated  as  described  in  4  and  5. 

2.  To  this  mass  caustic  potash  dissolved  in  the  same  quantity  of  water  is 
added  (3  per  cent,  of  the  original  quantity  of  meat),  and  this  is  further  heated 
over  a  water  bath  until  the  muscle  fibers  fall  apart. 

3.  The  cooked  mass  is  then  boiled  down  to  the  weight  of  the  original  quantity 
of  meat  and  filtered. 

4.  After  complete  cooling  this  meat  solution  is  carefully  mixed  with  equal 
parts  of  diluted  nitric  acid,  in  order  to  precipitate  most  of  the  albumenoids 
and  for  decolorization,  and  it  is  then  again  filtered. 

5.  This  filtrate  (or  the  bouillon,  which  was  obtained  under  1,  and  which 
was  also  acidulated  with  dilute  nitric  acid  and  filtered)  is  then  treated  with 
iodine  water,  which  is  carefully  poured  on  the  side  of  the  test-tube  to  the  filtrate. 
In  this  way  at  the  contact  of  the  solutions  in  the  presence  of  horse  meat  a 
burgundy  red  zone  forms,  the  width  and  intensity  of  which  depend  on  the 
quantity  of  horse  meat  in  the  examined  sample — that  is,  on  the  quantity  of 
glycogen  in  the  meat. 

This  method  is  successful  in  proving  qualitatively  the  presence 
of  glycogen  even  in  mixtures  which  contained  only  5  per  cent,  of  horse 
meat.  The  color  reaction  must  be  distinct,  and  in  order  to  avoid  any 
possible  errors  it  should  be  carried  out  by  daylight.  The  principal 
requirement  in  the  execution  of  this  test  is  the  absence  of  starch,  and 
for  this  reason  a  small  quantity  of  the  meat  should  be  first  tested  by 
boiling  and  the  addition  of  iodine  or  Lugol's  solution.  Should  the 
sample  contain  starch,  then  the  following  modification  is  to  be  applied: 

1.  The  glycogen  which  might  be  present  in  the  meat  product  is  exclusively 
extracted  by  boiling  the  sample  of  meat  to  which  the  necessary  quantity  of 
water  has  been  added  in  a  water  bath,  which  requires  several  hours. 

2.  The  filtered  extract  is  very  carefully  reduced  on  the  water  bath  to  one- 
third  of  the  original  quantity  of  the  meat. 

3.  To  this  concentrated  juice  two  or  three  times  its  volume  of  concentrated 
acetic  acid  is  added,  which  precipitates  the  starch  (frequently  only  after  a 
few  hours).     It  has  not  yet  been  determined  whether  the  method  recommended 
by  Baur  and  Polenske  is  suitable  for  the  separation  of  starch  and  glycogen 
through  the  precipitation  with  a  saturated  ammonium  sulphate  solution. 

4.  The  liquid  containing  the  precipitate  is  carefully  filtered  through  a  double 
or  three-folded  filter,  and  to  a  small  quantity  of  the  filtrate  iodine  is  added 
for  the  starch  test.    Should  some  starch  still  be  present,  the  addition  of  acetic 
acid  must  be  repeated  and  the  material  again  filtered. 

5.  To  the  solution  which  does  not  contain  any  starch,  iodine  water  may 
be  directly  but  carefully  poured  for  the  glycogen  test.     But  as  the  extract 


84     CHEMISTRY  OF  PRINCIPAL   TISSUES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS 

becomes  diluted  two  or  three  times  its  volume  through  the  addition  of  acetic 
acid,  it  becomes  advisable  in  case  of  negative  results. 

6.  To  precipitate  the  presumptive  glycogen  by  the  addition  of  alcohol  to 
ten  or  twelve  times  its  volume. 

7.  The  cloudy  alcoholic  solution  is  filtered  through  as  small  a  filter  as  possible. 

8.  The  traces  of  glycogen,  which  might  have  been  retained  in  the  filter, 
are  dissolved  with  a  few  drops  of  hot  water  and  with  water  acidified  with 
acetic  acid,  and  the  solution  which  thus  passes  through  is  then  carefully  tested 
with  iodine  water  for  glycogen. 

The  entire  procedure  of  this  examination  of  products  containing 
starch  must  be  carefully  executed  in  every  part,  owing  to  the  danger 
of  the  formation  of  dextrin,  which  might  be  mistaken  for  glycogen. 
A  chemical  separation  of  dextrin  from  glycogen  has  not  yet  been  accom- 
plished. Further  information  must  be  obtained  from  the  original 
works  on  the  subject. 

It  should  be  especially  emphasized  that  the  method  of  Edelmann- 
Brautigam  should  be  preferably  used  for  diagnostic  purposes.  In 
general  work  this  method  should  be  applied  for  the  demonstration  of 
the  presence  of  glycogen  in  the  suspected  meat  product,  and,  if  necessary, 
through  a  quantitative  chemical  analysis,  the  quantity  of  the  glycogen 
in  the  product  should  be  determined. 

The  published  modification  of  Edelmann-Brautigam's  method  by 
Courtroy  and  Coreman  cannot  be  recommended. 

Bastien  advises  the  following  simplification  of  Edelmann-Brautigam's 
method  for  determining  glycogen  in  sausages : 

Twenty  grams  of  the  sausage  to  be  examined  is  chopped  and  boiled  for 
about  one  hour,  until  the  quantity  is  reduced  to  30  c.c.  After  cooling,  it  is 
filtered  and  to  10  c.c.  of  the  filtrate  2  to  5  drops  of  iodine  water  are  added.  A 
red-violet  coloration  proves  the  presence  of  horse  meat,  even  if  the  sausage 
contains  only  5  per  cent,  of  such  meat.  The  coloration  disappears  quickly, 
therefore  the  reagent  must  be  added  carefully  in  order  not  to  obtain  a  red- 
brown  coloration. 

Should  the  sample  of  sausage  contain  starch  also,  the  above-mentioned 
boiled  mass  is  first  decanted,  and  according  to  the  quantity  of  starch  present, 
1  or  2  volumes  of  acetic  acid  is  added.  After  five  minutes  it  is  filtered,  and 
10  c.c.  of  the  filtrate  are  taken  for  the  same  iodine  test  as  described  above. 

Lebbien  also  recommends  a  new  method  for  the  quantitative  determination 
of  glycogen,  which,  however,  must  first  be  proved  satisfactorily  in  practice. 
This  method  is  principally  adapted  for  experts  in  chemistry. 

Hasterlik  aimed  to  utilize  the  large  quantity  of  iodine  which  horse  fat  con- 
tains as  a  distinguishing  sign.  The  latter  amounts  in  the  intermuscular  horse 
fat  to  79.71  to  85.87,  compared  with  49.74  to  58.45  in  beef  fat.  In  mixtures 
of  these  fats  or  with  lard  the  quantity  of  the  iodine  changes  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  method  cannot  claim  an  absolute  reliability.  The  method  itself  is 
recently  said  to  have  given  good  satisfaction  with  meats  prepared  by  cooking. 

Bremer  does  not  accept  such  a  high  content  of  iodine  in  the  fat  of  the  horse 
as  Hasterlik,  and  advises  NiebePs  method  as  a  supplementary  examination. 

Nussberger  recommends  the  Zeiss  refractometer  for  the  determination  of 
horse  fat  (Chapter  X) . 

This  method  is  also  prescribed  by  the  regulations  of  the  imperial  meat- 
inspection  law. 

All  these  methods  should  be  submitted  at  first  to  expert  chemists. 


FRAUDULENT  SUBSTITUTIONS  FOR  MEAT  85 

Cattle  and  Deer. — The  muscle  fibers  of  beef  are  coarser  than  those  of  deer, 
and  the  bones  are  also  stronger.  Deer  meat  is  darker  than  beef,  and  is  not 
so  mottled  with  fat.  The  fat  of  deer  appears  much  like  mutton  fat;  it  is 
harder  and  more  brittle  than  beef  fat. 

Cattle  and  Buffalo. — Generally  fresh  buffalo  meat  is  darker  (more  reddish 
brown)  and  the  fibers  are  coarser  and  looser  in  structure  than  beef.  The  odor 
of  buffalo  meat  and  fat  resembles  that  of  musk,  and  if  boiled  in  strong  acidified 
(sulphuric  acid)  water  it  develops  a  disagreeable  odor  similar  to  that  of  cattle 
manure  (Puntigam  and  Halusa).  The  cutaneous  shoulder  muscle  of  buffalo 
is  only  3  to  5  fingers  broad,  while  that  of  cattle  is  considerably  broader.  The 
fat  of  buffalo  is  strikingly  white,  and  is  drier  and  less  sticky  than  in  cattle. 
The  conformation  of  the  bones  of  the  buffalo  is  generally  finer  and  the  bones 
are  more  brittle.  The  pubic  symphysis  of  the  buffalo  appears  strikingly  plain. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF 

MEAT 

IN  the  utilization  of  meat  for  human  food  it  undergoes  various 
processes  or  preparations,  and  should  it  not  be  consumed  within  a 
certain  period  it  must  be  conserved  in  order  that  it  may  be  kept. 


CHOPPED   MEAT 

The  production  of  chopped  meat  by  means  of  cutting  the  flesh 
with  a  knife,  cleaver,  rocking  knife,  or  meat  grinder  is  the  simplest 
method  of  preparation.  For  this  purpose  beef  and  pork  are  principally 
used,  but  veal  is  likewise  utilized  to  a  small  extent.  The  short  tendi- 
nous meat  of  the  head,  leg,  and  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  which  does 
not  find  a  ready  sale  in  the  butcher  shop,  is  thus  worked  up  into  a  more 
salable  product.  Naturally  fat  is  also  added  and  chopped  up  with  the 
meat  in  larger  or  smaller  quantities. 

Chopped  meat  is  consumed  either  raw,  after  flavoring  with  salt, 
pepper,  and  onions,  especially  in  northern  and  middle  Germany,  or 
is  used  for  the  preparation  of  meat  sausage,  meat  balls,  and  various 
other  dishes  (German  beefsteak,  hamburger  steak). 

To  make  the  chopped  meat  retain  the  red  muscular  coloring  matter,  sul- 
phurous acid  and  its  salt  are  frequently  added,  which,  however,  do  not  retard 
all  decomposition. 

Meyer  examined  the  bacterial  content  of  chopped  meat  by  sowings  on  gelatin 
plates  and  found  1,695,000  to  12,717,000  bacteria  to  1  gram  of  meat.  The 
number  of  bacteria  was  not  influenced  by  the  usual  additions  of  preservative 
salts. 

SAUSAGE 

By  sausage  is  understood  a  mixture  of  meat  which  is  placed  into 
a  sausage  covering.  For  coverings  the  intestines  are  principally  em- 
ployed, the  serous  membrane  being  inverted  (see  page  50);  besides, 
the  esophagus  of  cattle,  the  stomach  of  hogs  and  the  urinary  bladder 
of  various  food  animals  are  also  used.  The  recent  so-called  artificial 
parchment  is  also  used  as  a  cover  or  casing. 

Sausages  and  their  preparation  vary  considerably  in  different 
countries.  This  applies  especially  to  those  varieties  to  which  larger 
quantities  of  vegetable  ingredients  are  added.  The  principal  ingredients 


SAUSAGE  87 

of  sausage  are  always  muscle  meat  and  fat,  besides  blood,  heart,  tongue, 
connective  tissue,  hog  skin,  liver,  and  various  other  parts  of  the  viscera. 
In  order  to  make  the  sausage  tasty,  spices  (salt,  saltpeter,  sugar, 
pepper,  paprika,  caraway,  marjoram,  garlic,  onions,  coriander,  cinna- 
mon, clove,  truffle,  sardelle,  etc.)  are  added  to  the  animal  ingredients. 
Many  varieties  of  sausages  are  prepared  for  an  early  (immediate) 
consumption;  in  order  to  increase  the  keeping  qualities  of  sausage  they 
are  either  smoked  only  or  they  are  at  first  boiled  and  then  smoked. 

In  accordance  with  the  composition  of  the  filling  the  following 
varieties  of  sausages  may  be  distinguished : 

Meat  Sausages. — Meat  saifsages  consist  chiefly  of  chopped  beef, 
pork,  or  veal.  For  commercial  purposes  they  are  divided  into: 

1.  Fresh  sausage  and  sausage  for  boiling  or  scalding,   which  are 
sold  under  various  names. 

2.  Sausages    of    keeping    qualities,    which    are    known  as  cervelat, 
summer  sausage,  etc. 

Since  fresh  sausage  and  sausage  for  boiling  are  destined  for  early 
consumption,  they  do  not  contain  any  preservatives;  at  most  they 
might  be  slightly  smoked  in  order  to  improve  the  taste.  The  sausages 
with  keeping  qualities,  on  the  other  hand,  should  keep  for  a  longer 
period.  This  is  accomplished  by  the  reduction  of  the  content  of  water 
in  the  filling  by  drying  and  by  smoking.  The  addition  of  water  to 
sausage  filling  of  fresh  sausage  or  those  for  boiling  or  scalding  is  usual 
and  positively  necessary  when  the  mass  is  to  be  filled  in  the  narrow 
casings.  The  absorbing  power  of  sausages  for  water  (see  page  53) 
depends  on  the  binding  quality  of  the  meat.  The  higher  or  lower 
binding  quality  of  the  meat  influences  the  consistence  of  the  sausage 
mass  inside  of  the  covering,  and,  therefore,  the  slicing  of  the  sausage 
as  well  as  the  appearance  of  the  cut  surface.  The  quantity  of  the 
added  water,  which  amounts  to  about  24  per  cent.,  according  to 
Hofmann,  is  of  no  special  importance,  since  through  the  hot  smoking 
of  boiled  sausages  and  others  not  only  the  added  water  is  lost,  but 
frequently  even  a  portion  of  the  natural  content  of  water  of  the  meat. 
For  this  reason,  and  also  because  the  public  demands  juicy,  well- 
stuffed  sausages,  the  addition  of  water  to  the  filling  of  this  variety  of 
sausages  cannot  be  considered  as  an  adulteration. 

The  addition  of  flour  to  sausage  filling,  which  for  a  time  had  assumed 
considerable  proportions,  was  declared  by  the  butchers  to  be  an  abso- 
lute necessity,  on  account  of  the  meat  losing  its  binding  qualities 
through  the  fattening  used  by  the  hog  raisers.  This,  however,  cannot 
be  confirmed,  as  there  are  places  where  the  addition  of  flour  is  never 
practised,  yet  they  produce  excellent  sausage.  If  the  addition  of 
flour  is  kept  within  a  certain  limit  (about  2  per  cent.)  it  does  not 
necessarily  indicate  a  deterioration  in  boiled  or  scalded  sausages, 
as  it  thickens  the  juice  and  makes  the  sausage  more  palatable.  How- 
ever, the  addition  of  flour  is  only  permissible  when  the  consumers 
are  aware  of  that  practice.  In  sausage  with  keeping  qualities  the 
addition  of  any  quantity  of  flour  means  an  adulteration.  The  suppo- 


88     PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

sition  that  the  addition  of  flour  to  the  sausage  filling  makes  the 
absorption  of  a  larger  quantity  of  water  possible  is  erroneous,  as  starch 
flour  absorbs  water  only  in  boiling,  and  boiling  water  or  prepared 
paste  is  not  employed  in  the  preparation  of  sausage. 

With  the  addition  of  mixtures  of  egg  albumen  and  tragacanth,  the  so-called 
"  albumina, "  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  sausage  filling  consisting  of  35  kg. 
meat  and  50  kg.  water,  with  a  content  of  only  3  per  cent,  of  "  albumina. " 
Therefore  such  an  addition  must  be  considered  as  an  adulteration. 

Although  the  coloring  of  sausage  filling  is  prohibited  in  the  German  Empire 
(see  also  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulations  22,  Sections  1  and  2)  by  the  imperial 
decree  of  February  16,  1902,  it  should,  however,  find  brief  mention  here.  The 
coloring,  which  was  frequently  employed  in  the  production  of  sausages  of 
keeping  qualities,  was  principally  to  prevent  the  filling  from  turning  gray 
and  especially  in  order  to  prevent  this  occurrence  on  the  cut  surfaces.  The 
turning  of  the  color  is  due  to  a  change  of  the  muscle  coloring  matter  into  a 
colorless  modification,  which  does  not  necessarily  indicate  a  simultaneous 
spoiling  of  the  muscle  substance.  The  causes  for  the  sausage  turning  gray 
have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  established.  According  to  Meyer,  this  occurs 
through  a  loss  of  salt  in  the  sausage  filling,  progressing  gradually  toward  the 
centre  by  means  of  osmosis,  and  naturally  may  soon  affect  the  cut  surface 
uniformly,  thereby  turning  it  gray.  It  is  possible  that  an  insufficient  nitrite 
formation  from  the  saltpeter  of  the  sausage  filling  might  play  a  part  in  the 
change  of  the  color,  which,  as  has  been  indicated  by  K.  B.  Lehmann  and 
Kalbrenner,  changes  the  hemoglobin  into  a  new  red  blood  coloring  derivative 
(the  hemorrhodin) .  (See  also  page  90.)  Glage  attributes  the  turning  gray 
of  the  sausage  to  the  action  of  the  volatile  sulphur  compound  in  the  meat 
(N2S)  in  combination  with  oxygen  on  the  muscle  coloring  matter. 

As  coloring  matter,  cochineal  or  the  carmine  which  is  derived  from  it,  is 
employed  most  frequently.  Numerous  preparations  with  various  names 
(karnit,  albon-karnit,  rubro-karnit,  etc.)  are  also  used,  but  coal-tar  preparations, 
as  fuchsin,  safranin,  ponceau,  rosalin,  and  eosin,  are  seldom  used. 

Through  coloring,  meat  of  a  lesser  value  and  that  which  contains  only  a 
small  amount  of  muscle-coloring  matter  may  be  changed  into  better  appear- 
ing meat,  and  the  fat  in  the  sausage  may  also  be  changed  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  simulate  meat. 

The  coloring  of  the  casings  (sausage  cover)  is  not  affected  by  the  above- 
mentioned  prohibition.  However,  unwholesome  stains,  as  for  instance  korollin, 
should  not  be  permitted  to  be  used. 

[The  use  of  coloring  matters  in  the  preparation  of  sausage  is  pro- 
hibited in  the  United  States.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  the  sausage 
filling,  while  for  the  casings  coloring  matters  which  are  approved  by 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  be  used.  (See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150, 
Regulation  22,  Section  2,  Part  1.)] 

Blood  Sausages. — Blood  sausages  are  prepared  from  blood  (as  a 
rule,  hog  blood),  mixed  with  small  cubes  of  cooked  fats  and  lean  pork 
meat,  heart,  tongue,  hog  skin,  lung,  and  spices.  The  meat  ingredients 
mixed  with  blood,  are  filled  into  casings  and  the  sausages  are  boiled 
for  the  purpose  of  coagulating  the  blood.  This  must  be  done  care- 
fully and  the  larger  the  dimensions  of  the  sausage  and  the  more  vegetable 
substance  they  contain  the  more  attention  they  require.  To  insure 
the  keeping  qualities  of  the  sausage  they  are  smoked  and  are  sold  under 
the  names  of  red  sausage,  black  sausage,  tongue  sausage. 


CULINARY  PREPARATION  OF  MEAT  89 

White  Sausages. — These  varieties  of  sausages,  which  are  also  called 
soft  sausages  on  account  of  their  consistence,  are  prepared  from  boiled 
and  chopped  visceral  parts,  especially  from  the  liver.  In  these  sausages 
the  lungs,  stomachs  of  ruminants,  brains,  finely  cut  pork  and  veal, 
with  the  addition  of  considerable  quantities  of  rendered  or  cooked 
fat  in  cubes,  are  also  utilized.  The  addition  of  the  various  kinds  of 
spices  makes  these  sausages  especially  tasteful,  and  they  are  named 
accordingly  (onion,  charlotte,  sardell,  truffle,  and  liver  sausage,  etc.). 
After  cooking  they  are  consumed  either  in  a  fresh  or  smoked  state. 
The  light  color  of  the  cooked  ingredients  of  the  sausage  gives  the  cut 
surface  the  gray  to  whitish  color  (white  sausage) . 

Similar  to  these  varieties  of  sausage  are  the  preparation  and  consistence 
of  most  of  the  commercially  known  meat  pastes  (goose  liver,  fowl  paste,  etc.), 
in  which  the  liver  is  the  principal  constituent. 

Jelly  Sausages. — These  are  prepared  from  parts  of  the  body  rich 
in  connective  tissue,  such  as  skin  and  head  of  hogs,  head  and  feet 
with  the  skin  of  calves,  the  muzzle  of  cattle,  etc.  Fat  and  lean  meat 
as  well  as  spices  are  also  added.  The  cooked  or  scalded  meat  and 
other  ingredients  are  cut  and  filled,  as  a  rule,  into  a  stomach  or  bladder 
of  a  hog,  and  the  voluminous  sausages  are  then  thoroughly  boiled. 
In  this  process  jelly  forms  inside  of  the  sausage,  which  after  cooling 
coagulates  and  thereby  binds  the  ingredients  of  the  sausage.  In  order 
that  the  binding  should  be  as  uniform  as  possible,  and  that  the  sausage 
should  attain  the  desired  firmness  and  should  slice  well,  it  is  pressed 
until  completely  cooled.  Jelly  sausage  is  mostly  consumed  in  the 
fresh  state,  but  also  may  be  smoked  to  increase  its  keeping  qualities. 
It  is  known  under  the  names,  pressed  hogs'  head,  pressed  sack,  pressed 
sausage. 

Sausages  with  Larger  Quantities  of  Vegetable  Matter. — The  animal 
basic  substances  of  these  sausages  are  usually  blood  with  fat  or  lean 
pork  meat,  or  a  white  sausage  filling.  To  these  are  added,  besides 
various  spices,  larger  quantities  of  vegetable  substances,  which  are 
rich  in  carbohydrates,  as  groats,  bread,  boiled  rice,  rolls,  boiled  potatoes, 
corinths,  raisins,  sugar,  etc.  The  filled  sausages  for  which  the  stomach 
or  bladder  of  hogs  are  frequently  used  as  containers,  are  cooked  and 
consumed  when  fresh,  or  they  may  be  preserved  by  smoking.  This 
kind  of  sausage  is  principally  prepared  for  the  household,  and,  there- 
fore, almost  every  locality  has  its  own  characteristic  sausage  belonging 
to  this  group. 

CULINARY   PREPARATION    OF   MEAT 

Culinary  preparation  should  render  meat  tasteful  and  more  tender, 
but  it  is  not  necessarily  made  more  digestible. 

Considering  the  digestibility  of  culinary  prepared  meat,  Popoff  established 
the  following  scale  of  values: 


90     PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

If  of  raw  beef,  100  parts  are  digested,  then  the  digestibility  of  boiled  beef 
is  83.4  parts;  smoked  beef,  71  parts;  smoked  and  boiled  beef,  60  parts. 

Different  results  were  obtained  by  Lebbin,  who  found  that  the  nutritive 
value  stands  the  highest  in  smoked  beef;  this  is  followed  in  a  gradual  decline 
by  roasted  meat,  pickled  meat,  raw  chopped  meat,  soup  meat,  and  broiled  meat. 

A.  H.  Chittenden  and  W.  Commins  found  the  following  results  on  the  diges- 
tibility of  the  various  kind  of  meats  by  artificial  gastric  juice.  If  the  digestibility 
of  beef  is  placed  at  100,  then 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Veal =   94.89  Trout =  78.45 

Mutton      .      .      .      .  =   92.15  Eel =  71.82 

Lamb =  87.93  Haddock   .      .      .      .    =  82.50 

Fowl  (white  meat)     .  =86.72  Herring      .      .      .      .    =  82.34 

Fowl  (dark  meat)       .  =  84.42  Lobster      .      .      .      .=  87.81 

Salmon       .      .      .      .  =  92.29  Crab =  67.13 

If  under  the  same  condition  100  per  cent,  of  boiled  beef  would  be  digested, 
that  of  raw  beef  would  amount  to  142.38  per  cent. 

The  experiments  with  artificial  gastric  juice  do  not  disclose  the  actual  utiliza- 
tion of  the  meat  in  the  body,  especially  the  nitrogenous  substances,  as  the 
intestinal  digestion  completes  that  of  the  stomach. 

The  tastefulness  and  tenderness  of  meat  can  be  best  accomplished  in  the 
kitchen,  provided  the  meat  has  attained  the  required  ripeness  by  which  the 
developing  lactic  acid  swells  and  loosens  the  connective-tissue  parts  of  the 
muscles.  Such  loosening  may  be  also  obtained  by  placing  the  meat  into  vinegar 
or  milk. 

According  to  Sygoal  and  Schmidt-Nielson's  investigations  fish  meat  also 
undergoes  a  ripening  process,  and  salted  fish  especially  should  be  allowed  to 
go  through  the  process.  Fish  rich  in  fat  as  herring,  salmon,  trout,  mackerel, 
and  others  ripen  even  when  in  pickle,  while  in  the  salting  of  haddock  and  other 
lean  fish  the  ripening  does  not  take  place.  The  fish  muscles  contain  enzymes 
like  those  of  the  mammals,  which  accomplish  the  splitting  that  represents 
the  ripening  process.  The  latter  is  brought  on  by  autolysis. 

On  the  other  hand,  according  to  the  investigation  of  Haldik,  freshly  slaugh- 
tered meat,  with  a  suitable  preparation  (cooking  in  small  pieces  or  stewing 
as  gulash  in  small  pieces),  is  usually  just  as  tasty  as  ripened  meat;  however, 
in  roasting  it  becomes  very  tough  and  unpalatable. 

Boiling. — To  obtain  a  good  meat  broth  by  the  boiling  of  meat  the 
latter  must  set  on  the  fire  with  cold  water  and  boil  slowly  for  three 
to  four  hours.  But  if  boiled  meat  which  is  juicy  is  desired,  the  raw 
meat  must  be  placed  in  boiling  water,  and  the  boiling  heat  must  not 
be  reduced  to  any  great  extent.  In  this  way,  a  coagulated  layer  soon 
forms  on  the  surface  of  the  meat,  and  prevents  the  juices  from  escaping. 
In  consequence,  only  traces  of  muscle  albumen  pass  into  the  water, 
and  they  are  manifested  on  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  form  of 
a  light  coagulated  scum.  The  heat  enters  the  inside  of  the  meat  slowly, 
and  is  indicated  by  the  change  of  the  red  muscle  coloring  matter  to 
the  familiar  gray  color  of  the  meat,  the  change  requiring  a  tempera- 
ture of  at  -least  73°  C. 

The  reddening  of  the  meat  on  the  surface  in  boiling  is,  according  to  Kisskalt, 
the  result  of  the  presence  of  anhydride  of  nitrous  acid  (N.,03)  in  the  water  in 
which  the  boiling  takes  place.  Especially  does  the  superficial  reddening  of 
the  meat  readily  occur  if  fresh  meat  is  boiled  in  bouillon,  which  is  twelve  to 
twenty-four  hours  old,  as  in  such  bouillon  Na06  reducing  bacteria  are  remark- 


CULINARY  PREPARATION  OF  MEAT  91 

ably  propagated.  But  the  N205  enters  the  bouillon  either  from  the  water  or 
from  the  customary  soup  vegetables  which  are  used  in  its  preparation.  It  is 
natural  that  meat  which  has  been  treated  with  sulphurous  salts  will  also  become 
carmine  red  on  boiling. 

The  unchanged  red  color  of  the  salted  or  pickled  meat  which  remains  after 
boiling  is  produced,  according  to  Haldane,  through  the  presence  of  nitric 
oxyhemochromogen,  which  is  formed  as  a  result  of  heating  from  nitric  oxyhemo- 
globin,  to  which  also  the  unboiled  pickled  meat  owes  its  redness. 

Steaming. — In  steaming  or  stewing  it  is  best  not  to  allow  the  meat 
to  come  in  contact  with  water,  but  only  steam  heat.  For  this  purpose 
Mapin's  steam  boiling  pot  is  well  adapted.  The  stewing  may  also  be 
accomplished  by  placing  the  meat  in  a  boiling  hot  fat  gravy,  which 
is  constantly  poured  over  the  meat  to  obtain  quickly  a  superficially 
coagulated  layer,  in  order  to  retain  the  juice  in  the  inside  of  the  meat. 
As  a  result  of  this,  well-stewed  meat  is  generally  more  tasteful  than 
boiled  meat. 

Roasting. — The  aim  in  roasting  meat  at  a  high  temperature  (boiling 
fat)  is  to  produce  quickly  an  external  coagulated  layer  in  order  to 
retain  as  much  as  possible  of  the  juice  in  the  meat,  which  will  be  replaced 
by  a  gradual  infiltration  of  fat.  The  latter  serves  also  to  increase  the 
juiciness  and  the  tastefulness  of  the  roast,  while  the  other  peculiarities 
may  be  attributed  (Stutzer)  to  the  penetration  of  burning  products 
and  to  the  decomposition  of  the  meat  bases  (kreatin,  sarkin).  If 
it  is  desired  to  prepare  a  so-called  English  roast  the  interior  of  which 
remains  red,  the  inside  temperature  should  not  rise  over  63°  to  65°  C. 

Penetration  of  Meat  by  High  Temperature. — As  meat  is  a  poor 
conductor  of  heat,  high  temperatures  penetrate  slowly  into  it.  Bones 
in  the  meat  increase  conduction  of  heat.  Concerning  the  penetra- 
tion of  heat  into  meat  and  meat  products,  the  following  investigations 
were  made: 

Rupprecht  established  that  in  boiling  blood  sausage  the  inside  temperature 
of  the  meat  only  reached  66°  C.,  in  jelly  and  tongue  sausage,  62.5°,  and  in 
pressed  hog's  stomach  sausage  only  58.70°  C.  The  temperature  of  the  inside 
of  boiled  ham  he  established  at  65°  C.,  and  the  same  for  pork,  when  prepared 
in  the  usual  way,  cooked  with  vegetables.  In  frying  meat  balls  the  inside 
temperature  rises  to  58.75°  CM  and  in  quick  frying  of  sausage  only  to  28.75°  C. 

According  to  Kuchenmeister,  in  boiling  larger  pieces  of  meat  for  one-half 
an  hour  a  temperature  of  only  55°  C.  is  reached;  even  after  boiling  for  several 
hours  it  reaches  only  to  77°  to  80°  C. 

Leuckart  states  that  in  fried  sausage  and  cutlets  a  temperature  of  62.5° 
and  in  roast  pork  75°  C.  is  obtained,  which,  however,  does  not  rise  over  65° 
C.  if  the  roast  is  prepared  in  the  English  style. 

Wolfhugel  and  Huppe  in  their  extensive  experiments  established  the  following: 

1.  Three  thermometers  inserted  into  a  calf  leg  of  14.25  kg.  after  a  roasting 
of  three  and  one-half  hours  at  a  maximal  temperature  of  103°  C.  registered 
71°,  76°,  and  89°  C. 

2.  A  similar  experiment  with  a  smoked  ham  ot  4.5  kg.  after  four  hours  boil- 
ing in  salt  water  with  a  maximal  temperature  of  102°  C.  showed  75°,  77°, 
arid  78°  C. 

3.  The  thermometer  registered  93.96°  and  98°  C.  in  a  fresh  piece  of  veal 
weighing  3  kg.  after  three  hours  of  roasting,  in  which  the  heat  in  the  roasting 
oven  reached  155°  C. 


92     PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

4.  A  temperature  of  91°  and  92°  C.  was  obtained  in  the  interior  of  a  piece 
of  beef  weighing  3  kg.  placed  on  the  fire  in  boiling  water  and  kept  boiling  for 
two  and  one-half  hours  by  which  a  temperature  of  105°  C.  was  reached  in 
the  water. 

5.  In  the  same  size  piece  of  beef,  but  which  was  placed  on  a  fire  in  cold  water, 
the  temperature  registered  95°  and  96°  C. 

From  these  experiments  it  may  be  observed  that  the  inside  temperature 
of  larger  pieces  of  meat  (over  3  to  4  kg.)  even  in  boiling  or  roasting  for  several 
hours  never  reaches  a  temperature  of  100°  C. 

In  the  application  of  steam  under  pressure  the  temperature  of  the  meat  rises 
in  a  comparatively  short  time  to  over  100°  C. 

Losses  in  Meat  in  its  Preparation  in  the  Kitchen. — Losses  in  Weight.— 
In  culinary  preparation  meat  loses  in  the  first  place  water.  According  to  Voit, 
after  boiling  100  grams  of  fresh  meat  it  gives  an  average  of  57  grams  with  about 
40  per  cent,  dry  substance.  Forster  established  the  content  of  dry  substance 
in  boiled  meat  at  40  to  46  per  cent.;  in  roast  meat  at  30  to  40  per  cent.  Noth- 
wang  found  that  100  grams  of  fresh  meat  give  after  boiling  one,  one  and  one-half, 
and  two  hours  respectively,  68.9,  59,  and  54.6  grams;  in  stewing,  68.2,  48, 
and  48.2  grams. 

In  stewing  or  steaming  the  loss  in  weight  is  generally  smaller;  it  fluctuates 
between  20  to  30  per  cent. 

According  to  Peters,  fish  meat  loses  about  30.18  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in 
stewing  through  the  loss  of  water;  from  the  dry  substances  only  2  per  cent, 
is  lost. 

In  roasting  the  loss  of  weight  depends  on  the  degree  of  the  roasting;  100 
grams  raw  lean  meat,  according  to  Konig,  produce  62  to  85  grams  moderately 
roasted  meat;  in  thorough  roasting,  however,  only  58  grams. 

According  to  Grindley  and  Timothy  Mojonnier,  in  the  boiling  of  beef  3.25 
to  12.67  per  cent,  nitrogenous  substances,  0.60  to  37.40  per  cent,  fat,  and  20.04 
to  67.39  per  cent,  mineral  constituents  pass  into  the  water  from  the  original 
meat.  In  heating  the  meat  with  fat,  on  an  average  2.15  per  cent,  nitrogenous 
substances  and  3.07  per  cent,  ashes  are  absorbed  by  the  fat,  while  the  meat 
contains  2.3  times  the  quantity  of  fat  as  before  the  frying. 

Losses  in  Nutritive  Substances. — Still  more  important  are  the  losses  of 
extractives  and  phosphoric  acid.  Nothwang  found  that  the  loss  of  the  first 
in  boiling  and  stewing  was  50  to  60  per  cent.,  while  the  loss  of  the  latter  was 
about  35  per  cent.  In  the  roasting  of  meat  the  losses  are  somewhat  slighter. 

In  the  boiling  of  pickled  meat,  which  already  suffers  a  loss  of  extractives 
and  phosphoric  acid  in  the  pickling,  a  further  loss  of  23.4  per  cent,  of  extractives 
and  19.05  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  is  sustained;  and  in  stewing  these  losses 
amount  to  20.6  per  cent,  and  19.3  per  cent.  The  combined  losses  of  pickled 
meat  in  "boiling  and  stewing  amount  to  65.6  to  67  per  cent,  in  the  extractives 
and  39.50  to  44.45  per  cent,  in  phosphoric  acid. 

METHODS    OF   CONSERVING   MEAT 

All  meats  contain  certain  preservative  qualities  which  depend  on 
conditions  in  the  meat  itself,  and  also  on  external  influences.  To 
the  first  belong  especially  the  blood  and  juice  contents  of  the  meat, 
and  the  health  or  disease  as  well  as  the  exhaustion  or  rest  of  the  animal 
before  slaughter.  The  influence  of  the  external  conditions  on  the 
meat  depends  principally  on  the  activity  of  the  putrefactive  organisms. 
They  reach  the  meat  from  the  air  or  from  soiling  the  meat,  and  enter 
from  the  contaminated  portions  of  the  surface,  through  the  blood 
or  lymph  vessels,  the  excretory  ducts  of  the  glands,  the  connective- 
tissue  spaces,  etc.,  into  the  interior  of  the  meat. 


METHODS  OF  CONSERVING  MEAT  93 

While  all  the  requirements  which  favor  the  development  of  putre- 
factive bacteria  (moisture,  heat,  deficiency  in  oxygen)  reduce  the 
keeping  qualities  of  meat,  the  latter  will  be  increased  if  conditions 
adverse  to  bacteria  are  present.  Consequently  all  methods  of  con- 
serving meat  are  directed  toward  keeping  away  and  diminishing  external 
factors  favoring  the  development  of  putrefactive  bacteria.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  physical  or  chemical  agents  and  methods,  or  with  the  aid  of 
both. 

Deichstetter  and  Emmerich  recommend  the  use  of  sterile  instruments  in 
the  slaughter  of  animals  to  as  great  an  extent  as  is  possible,  and  spraying  of 
the  surface  of  the  meat  with  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  for  dry  keeping,  packing 
it  in  sterilized  sawdust,  which  has  been  saturated  with  sodium  chloride.  If 
it  is  not  to  be  transported,  but  allowed  to  hang,  it  should  be  wrapped  with 
cloth  saturated  in  glycerinacetic  acid.  The  method,  however,  is  not  satisfactory 
for  keeping  the  meat  for  a  long  time  in  a  fresh  state.  A  better  method  is 
described  by  Deichstetter  and  Emmerich  (page  104),  which,  combined  with 
the  previous  method,  if  carefully  carried  out,  enables  meat  to  be  kept  in  a  fresh 
state  for  weeks. 

Physical  Conserving  Methods. — Conserving  by  Extraction  of  Water.— 
Drying  of  Meat. — By  this  very  old  and  simple  method  the  meat  is 
cut  into  strips  and  is  dried  quickly  in  the  air.  In  this  way  the  meat 
becomes  so  hard  and  tough  that  even  a  later  soaking  and  cooking 
does  not  make  it  perfectly  soft.  In  the  meat  trade  this  method  is 
principally  employed  for  the  conserving  of  haddock. 

A  meat  preparation  made  in  South  America  in  a  similar  manner 
(chargue  dulce),  or  by  previous  salting  of  the  meat  (chargue,  tasajo, 
or  jerked  beef,  Knuth),  is  not  brought  to  Europe. 

The  so-called  "paprika  bacon"  may  also  be  correctly  included  here, 
as  it  represents  fresh  bacon  rubbed  with  paprika  and  dried  in  the  air. 

Preparation  of  Meat  Flour.  —  The  meat  flour  which  is  prepared  and  sold  in 
South  America  under  the  name  "carne  pura, "  or  meat  powder,  is  prepared 
from  muscle,  which  is  ground  to  pulp,  then  dried,  milled  to  a  fine  powder, 
and  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  salt.  The  preparation  contains  about 
70  per  cent,  digestible  nitrogen,  but  has  a  burned  odor  and  taste.  Because 
of  this  and  its  high  price  it  has  not  found  a  general  market.  . 

Conserving  by  Excluding  the  Air. — This  very  old  method,  especially  em- 
ployed in  the  household,  consists  in  pouring  over  the  fresh,  boiled,  or  roasted 
meat,  liquid  fats  which  on  hardening  supply  the  meat  with  an  air-proof  cover- 
ing. For  the  wholesale  trade  in  meats  this  method  of  preservation  is  useless. 

Enclosing  in  Air-tight  Containers. — Sterilization  by  Boiling. — This 
method,  which  was  discovered  by  Appert  in  1809,  led  to  the  produc- 
tion of  canned  meat.  In  this  procedure  the  meat  is  freed  from  bones, 
tendons,  and  fat,  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  then  packed  as  fresh, 
pickled,  or  boiled  meat  into  tin  cans  to  which  the  covers  are  tightly 
soldered.  The  cans  are  boiled  for  three  to  four  hours  under  steam 
pressure;  which  causes  the  cans  to  swell.  According  to  Groning  the 
cans  are  pricked  in  one  place  to  permit  the  pouring  off  of  a  possible 
surplus  of  fat  and  extraction  of  the  air  from  the  cans  in  the  vacuum 


94     PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

apparatus.  The  drawing  in  of  the  walls  during  this  procedure  is  a 
positive  indication  that  the  cans  are  tight.  After  soldering  the  small 
opening  the  cans  are  again  heated  for  a  longer  period,  and  as  a  result 
of  the  heat  the  meat  is  sterilized.  In  cooling  the  cans  must  be  constantly 
moved  to  distribute  the  liquid  ingredients  within  uniformly,  so  that 
when  they  have  coagulated  into  a  jelly  the  pieces  of  meat  in  the  con- 
tainer may  be  held  together  firmly. 

Any  form  of  meat  food  may  be  preserved  in  a  similar  way  with  or 
without  the  addition  of  vegetables,  and  such  canned  preserves  are  a 
necessity  for  army  maintenance  in  the  field,  ships,  etc. 

The  North  American  corned  beef  is  prepared  from  pickled  meat,  which  is 
boiled  before  pressing  it  into  the  can;  however,  the  soldered  cans  are  again 
subjected  to  boiling  heat.  Corned  mutton  and  corned  pork  or  corned  brawn 
(pork  meat)  are  prepared  in  the  same  way.  As  the  importation  of  canned 
meats  into  Germany  has  been  prohibited  since  October  1,  1900,  the  German 
canning  industry  has  experienced  a  considerable  growth. 

[The  canned-meat  industry  has  assumed  extensive  proportions  in 
the  United  States,  and  as  the  meat-inspection  law  of  1906  has  control 
of  these  meat  products  a  knowledge  of  the  process  of  their  preparation 
is  deemed  essential  in  connection  with  the  supervision  of  the  work.] 

The  preparation  of  canned  meats  differs  not  alone  with  the  different 
kinds  of  meats  to  be  preserved,  but  also  the  process  may  differ  con- 
siderably in  the  various  establishments.  The  differences,  however, 
affect  only  some  minor  details,  while  the  essential  points  of  the  process 
are  the  same.  As  the  principal  canned  products  are  corned  beef  and 
potted  meats,  only  the  manufacture  of  these  two  will  be  described, 
all  others  being  more  or  less  similar  to  the  one  or  the  other  of  the 
processes. 

In  canning  potted  meats  the  meat  is  boiled  for  about  forty  minutes, 
after  which  it  is  hashed  sufficiently  fine,  and  immediately  spread  in 
shallow  pans  or  trays,  which  are  placed  in  a  retort  and  heated  to  82° 
C.  (180°  F.)  for  twenty  minutes  and  then  emptied  into  receptacles 
from  which  the  meat  is  conveyed  into  the  stuffing  machine.  In  handling 
the  meats  all  dejays  should  be  avoided,  and  the  cans  should  be  filled 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  tops  of  the  cans,  after  they  leave  the  stuffer, 
are  cleaned  off  and  the  can  is  then  capped.  The  caps  are  soldered 
immediately  by  passing  the  cans  through  an  automatic  soldering 
machine,  and  the  vent  in  the  cap  is  closed  by  hand  soldering  shortly 
after  they  pass  through  the  machine.  At  this  time  the  can  receives 
the  first  inspection.  If  the  can  appears  perfectly  closed,  it  is  passed 
directly  to  the  process  retort,  where  it  remains  for  one  to  one-quarter 
to  one  and  one-half  hours  (according  to  the  size  of  the  can),  under 
a  pressure  of  seven  pounds  at  110°  C.  (233°  F.).  If  inspection,  how- 
ever, shows  that  the  can  is  imperfectly  closed  it  is  repaired  before 
it  is  placed  into  the  retort. 

Small  cans  are  not  passed  through  the  vacuum  machine  before 


METHODS  OF  CONSERVING  MEAT  95 

going  to  the  process  retort,  as  they  are  handled  so  rapidly  that  sufficient 
heat  is  retained  in  the  product  after  being  placed  in  the  can  and  capped 
to  establish  their  own  vacuum  before  the  vent  in  the  cap  is  closed. 

By  establishing  about  22"  vacuum  on  the  cans  they  collapse  and 
distend  again  from  internal  pressure,  after  being  placed  in  the  pro- 
cessing retort,  which  pressure  will  develop  some  leaks  and  imperfections 
that  were  not  detected  on  the  first  inspection.  Therefore,  a  second 
inspection  is  made  as  soon  as  the  cans  are  taken  from  the  processing 
retort,  and  any  defective  cans  are  repaired  and  once  more  passed  through 
the  retort.  The  treatment  of  cans  by  passing  them  through  this  retort 
for  varying  periods  at  various  temperatures,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  can  and  the  material  under  treatment,  is  known  in  the  canning 
business  by  the  term  "processing." 

After  the  cans  are  sufficiently  processed  they  are  passed  through 
a  tub  of  hot  lye  for  the  purpose  of  removing  all  grease  from  the  outside 
of  the  can.  From  the  lye  tub  the  cans  pass  under  a  spray  of  cold  water, 
which  causes  them  to  collapse,  after  which  they  are  removed  into  the 
label  room.  From  this  time  any  can  showing  an  imperfect  condition 
is  rejected  as  unfit  for  food.  (B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  23, 
Section  2.) 

In  the  canning  of  corned  beef  the  meat  is  first  boiled  for  one  hour 
and  then  placed  in  the  can,  which  is  capped  with  the  vent  open.  The 
can  is  then  placed  in  the  vacuum  machine,  under  a  22"  vacuum,  and 
the  vent  soldered,  or  the  vacuum  may  be  also  established  by  leaving 
the  vent  open  and  placing  the  can  in  the  process  retort  for  forty-five 
minutes  at  104.5°  C.  (220°  F.),  then  removing  the  can  and  closing  the 
vent  immediately  after  it  ceases  blowing.  Another  method  of  establish- 
ing the  vacuum  is  to  seal  the  can  and  place  it  in  a  vat  of  boiling  water 
for  one  hour,  then  it  is  removed  and  punctured  with  a  sharp  instrument 
and  sealed  as  soon  as  the  can  stops  blowing.  If  the  can  contains  more 
than  one  pound  of  meat  the  time  in  the  retort  or  boiling  water  is  extended 
according  to  the  size  of  the  can.  If  the  vacuum  has  been  established 
by  the  vacuum  machine,  the  meat  is  then  placed  in  the  process  retort 
for  one  hour  and  forty-five  minutes  at  eight  pounds'  pressure  (111°  C.); 
if  the  vacuum  has  been  established  in  the  retort,  the  can  is  returned 
to  the  retort  as  soon  as  the  vent  is  closed  and  remains  in  the  retort 
for  one  and  one-half  hours  at  seven  pounds'  pressure  (110°  C.).  If 
again  the  vacuum  has  been  established  by  the  boiling  water  method 
the  can  is  processed  by  returning  to  the  boiling  water  for  two  hours, 
or  by  placing  in  the  retort  at  seven  pounds'  pressure  for  one  and  one- 
half  hours.  The  processing  time  given  above  applies  to  one  pound 
cans.  In  larger  sizes  the  procedure  is  the  same,  only  the  time  is  in- 
creased about  fifteen  minutes  for  each  additional  pound. 

In  canning  roast  meat  the  meat  is  parboiled  only  for  thirty  minutes, 
and  the  water  method  is  not  used  to  establish  a  vacuum;  otherwise 
the  method  is  the  same  as  that  for  canning  corned  beef,  but  a  higher 
temperature  is  maintained  in  the  retort.  After  the  processing  is 


96      PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

completed   the   method  is  similar  to  that  described  above  for  potted 
meats. 

The  following  imperfect  conditions  may  occur  in  the  preparation 
of  canned  meats : 

1.  Leaker:  a  can  in  which  air  has  gained  admittance  after  the  can 
has  been  supposedly  hermetically  closed. 

2.  Slow  leaker:  the  same  as  leaker,  only  it  develops  in  the  course 
of  time  after  the  completion  of  the  process. 

3.  Sweller:  a  can  in  which  the  product  is  undergoing  some  putre- 
factive or  fermentative  change,  which  was  unnoticeable  at  the  time 
of  the  canning. 

4.  Short  process  can:  one  which  has  not  had  the  regular  amount 
of  processing  for  the  cooking  and  sterilizing  of  the  product. 

5.  Collapsed  can:  one  which  has  been  collapsed  by  the  application 
of  too  much  vacuum.    The  condition  occurs  principally  in  cans  which 
have  not  been  properly  stuffed. 

6.  Overstuffed  can:  one  which  has  been  strained  in  packing,   by 
forcing  too  much  of  the  product  into  it. 

7.  Strained  can:  one  which  has  been   overstuffed  or  strained  by 
over-processing. 

8.  Do-over  can:  one  which  springs  a  leak  after  the  processing,  but 
before  entering  the  washing  machine  containing  the  lye  water. 

Judgment. — All  the  defects  of  cans  which  are  the  result  of  mechanical 
imperfections  and  which  are  noticed  in  the  course  of  preparation  do 
not  render  the  meat  unwholesome,  provided  such  defects  are  corrected 
within  six  hours  of  the  original  sterilization.  In  all  other  cases  the 
contents  of  the  cans  should  be  considered  as  unwholesome,  and  should 
be  condemned  in  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  23, 
Section  2. 

Replacing  the  Air  with  Oil. — Of  the  various  methods  employed 
to  replace  the  air  in  the  spaces  between  pieces  of  meat  in  cans,  which 
include  pouring  meat  jelly  (gelatin),  meat  broth,  arid  liquid  fat  over 
the  meat,  only  the  use  of  oil  has  attained  practical  importance.  The 
latter  is  particularly  employed  with  fish,  which  are  cooked  in  oil, 
packed  into  tin  boxes,  and  covered  with  oil  (oil  sardines). 

Preservation  with  Cold. — This  is  the  oldest  preserving  method  and 
at  the  same  time  the  simplest,  and  best  for  wholesale  industry.  The 
quality  of  the  meat  is  only  slightly  influenced  by  the  loss  of  a  small 
amount  of  the  tasty  substances;  otherwise  it  ripens  and  becomes  deli- 
cate and  tender.  The  preservative  action  of  cold  consists  in  checking 
the  development  of  the  causes  of  putrefaction.  That  numerous  bacteria, 
especially  the  pathogenic  forms,  are  not  destroyed  by  low  tempera- 
tures, was  proved  by  the  experiments  of  Forster,  Pictet  and  Young, 
Coleman  and  Mickendrick,  Havemann  and  others. 

LAYING  ON  ICE. — This  is  the  simplest  application  of  cold,  but  should  be 
rejected,  especially  when  the  meat  is  placed  directly  on  natural  ice,  as  patho- 
genic bacteria  which  the  ice  might  contain  may  be  transmitted  to  the  meat. 


METHODS  OF  CONSERVING  MEAT 


97 


98      PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

Besides,  through  the  melting  of  the  ice,  unnecessary  moisture  is  added  to  the 
meat,  which  under  certain  conditions  would  put  the  buyer  at  a  disadvantage 
regarding  the  weight  of  such  meat. 

INFLUENCE  OF  COLD  AIR. — Cooling  of  Air  by  Ice. — Through  the 
storing  of  ice  and  its  gradual  melting,  the  surrounding  air  is  cooled. 
The  preservative  properties  of  ice  boxes,  ice  cellars,  ice  houses,  are 
based  on  this  principle.  The  various  constructions  of  these  containers 
cannot  be  treated  here.  Their  qualities  depend  on  the  circulation  01 
the  air  in  the  meat-keeping  rooms,  and  on  their  thorough  insulation 
against  radiating  heat.  For  larger  plants  these  methods  are  not  satis- 
factory, as  they  are  dependent  on  numerous  contingencies  (deficiency 
of  ice,  excessive  summer  heat,  failure  of  the  ventilation  arrangements, 
etc.). 

On  this  principle  rests  also  the  transportation  of  meat  in  refrigerator  cars 
which  are  constructed  in  accordance  with  various  systems  (Straschiripka 
and  Tiffany;  Anderson,  Zimmermann,  Acclom,  Jaschka,  Wickes,  Schreiber, 
Trapp  and  others).  The  construction  of  a  refrigeration  car.  such  as  is  used 
in  the  United  States,  is  illustrated  under  Fig.  45. 

Refrigeration  Plant  Machines. — The  modern  refrigeration  plant 
with  machine  power  has  for  its  object  the  continued  maintenance 
of  a  temperature  ranging  from  4°  to  20°  C.  in  the  storage  room  for 
meat  independent  of  external  influences.  At  the  same  time  it  reduces 
the  content  of  moisture  to  at  least  70  per  cent,  of  the  relative  moisture, 
and  provides  for  a  continual  renewal  of  air,  which  it  purifies.  For 
this  purpose  every  refrigeration  plant  consists  of  the  following  three 
principal  parts:  The  cold  generator,  the  cold  transmitter,  and  the 
chilling  room  proper,  which  in  the  various  systems  is  differently  con- 
structed and  arranged. 

The  only  refrigeration  machines1  to  be  considered  are  the  "cold 
steam"  or  "compression"  machines;  the  "cold  air"  or  "air  expansion" 
machines  cannot  be  utilized  in  the  meat  industry. 

Refrigeration  machines  act  in  accordance  with  the  physical  law 
that  the  evaporation  of  liquids  consumes  heat.  For  this  purpose 
carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  and  sulphuric  acid  are  principally  used. 
They  pass  in  a  circle  through  a  system  of  pipes  and  are  compelled 
to  remain  in  a  portion  of  the  pipe  system  in  a  liquid  state,  as  a  result 
of  low  temperature  and  pressure,  while  in  another  part  of  the  system 
they  have  an  opportunity  for  evaporation.  The  principal  parts  of 
refrigeration  machines  are  the  compressor,  condenser,  and  evaporator. 
The  operation  schematically  produced  according  to  Fig.  46  is  as 
follows : 

1  For  extended  descriptions  see  Lorenz,  New  Refrigeration  Machines,  their  Construction,  Operation, 
and  Industrial  Utilization,  Munchen-Leipzig,  1901,  III  edition;  Statefeld,  The  Utilization  of  Refrigera- 
tion Machines,  Berlin,  1901;  Gottsche,  The  Refrigeration  Machines,  Hamburg,  1904;  also  Schwart, 
Construction,  Arrangement,  and  Operation  of  Public  Abattoirs  and  Stockyards,  Berlin,  1898,  second 
edition,  and  Schwartz,  Machines  for  the  Operation  of  Abattoirs,  Berlin,  1901. 


METHODS  OF  CONSERVING  MEAT 


99 


In  the  engine  room  is  a  steam  engine,  A,  directly  connected  with  the  com- 
pressor B.  From  the  latter  a  pressure  pipe  connection,  D,  leads  to  the  condenser 
K,  from  which  a  pipe  connection  with  the  regulating  valve  C  leads  to  the 
evaporator  V.  The  condenser  and  evaporator  are  large  cylindrical  galvanized- 


FIG.  46 


Schematic  sketch  of  the  principal  parts  of  a  cold-air  refrigerating  apparatus. 


iron  containers,  in  which  these  pipes  run  in  numerous  spiral  windings,  which 
are  rinsed  with  cold  and  continually  renewed  water  in  the  condenser,  and  in 
the  evaporator  by  a  salt  or  chloride  of  calcium  solution.  These  solutions 
are  continually  kept  moving  by  a  stirring  apparatus  which  is  also  operated 
by  the  engine,  and  which  turns  around  a  perpendicular  axis  within  the  spiral 


100  PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

tubing.  The  spiral  piping  of  the  evaporator  returns  to  the  compressor  as  a 
suction  tube.  S.  If  the  pipe  system  D,  C,  S,  is  filled  with  one  of  the  mentioned 
gases,  it  will,  as  a  result  of  the  pressure  of  the  compressor  piston  and  from  the 
cold  water  running  through  the  spiral  piping  of  the  condenser,  change  into 
a  liquid  state  with  a  constant  effort  to  return  to  a  gaseous  condition.  The 
latter  occurs  in  the  evaporator  into  which  the  gas  is  admitted  and  is  regulated 
by  the  valve  C,  and  in  which  the  gas  is  no  longer  kept  under  pressure,  but 
on  the  contrary  suction  is  applied  to  it  through  the  pipe  S  from  the  compressor. 
During  the  evaporation,  the  gas  abstracts  heat  from  the  spiral  pipes  which 
enclose  it,  and  these  again  from  the  salt  water  (salt  +  chloride  of  calcium 
solution)  which  surrounds  them,  by  which  the  latter  is  cooled  down  to  minus 
10°  to  12°  C.  But  the  evaporated  gas  passes  again  into  the  compressor  and 
makes  the  described  circle  over  again.  The  cooled  salt  water  acts  further 
as  a  transmitter  of  cold  and  is  pumped  by  the  pump  P  from  the  evaporator, 
is  then  pressed  into  the  piping  W,  and  is  conveyed  into  the  air-cooling  chamber 
L  and  Z/,  from  which  it  enters  the  ice-manufacturing  tank  Z,  and  thence 
returned. 

In  the  air-cooling  chamber,  the  salt-water  pipes  are  spread  in  numerous 
windings  in  such  a  way  that  the  connection  of  each  chamber  may  be  detached 
from  the  other;  therefore,  each  chamber  may  be  operated  separately.  The 
air-cooling  chambers  are  connected  by  air  shafts  with  the  meat  cooler  proper 
in  such  a  manner  that,  for  instance,  the  air  shaft  T  conveys  the  air  from  the 
cooler  into  the  air-cooling  chamber  and  the  air  shafts  U  and  U'  permit  the 
return  of  the  air  from  the  air-cooling  chambers  into  the  meat  cooler.  In  the 
latter  the  distribution  of  the  cooled  air  is  accomplished  by  canals  supplied  with 
openings  which  are  attached  to  the  ceiling.  In  a  similar  way  special  canals 
are  present  for  the  air  to  be  drawn  away  by  suction.  Movement  of  the  air 
between  the  rooms  is  accomplished  by  a  ventilator,  M,  which  is  operated  either 
by  electricity  or  by  transmission  from  the  steam  engine  in  such  a  way  that 
by  an  alternating  opening  or  closing  of  valves  the  air  in  the  meat  cooler  is 
ventilated  while  passing  around  the  pipes  of  the  air-cooling  chambers  L  and  L'. 
At  the  same  time  the  network  of  pipes  which  is  cooled  down  to  zero,  abstract 
from  the  moving  air  heat  impurities  and  moisture  so  that  the  air  is  returned 
to  the  cooler  cooled,  purified,  and  dried.  That  moisture  is  abstracted  from  the 
air  is  manifested  by  the  ice  deposits  on  the  pipes,  which  gradually  get  thicker, 
and  also  enclose  the  impurities  which  the  air  contains.  The  layer  of  ice  around 
the  pipes,  however,  retards  more  and  more  the  radiation  of  cold  from  the  pipe 
system,  and  therefore,  considerably  diminishes  the  cooling  action.  For  this 
reason,  after  certain  intervals  the  active  pipe  system  of  one  of  the  air-cooling 
chambers  is  detached  and  the  other  placed  into  operation,  which  acts  like 
the  first.  In  the  meantime,  the  first  thaws  out,  and  may  then  be  again  operated 
when  the  second  has  to  be  detached  on  account  of  the  thick  ice  covering.  The 
ice-producing  tank  Z  serves  for  the  production  of  artificial  ice.  For  this  pur- 
pose galvanized-iron  containers  are  filled  with  water  and  hung  into  the  salt 
water  of  the  tank;  the  water  is  permitted  to  freeze  and  the  containers  are  then 
taken  out  of  the  salt  water.  The  latter  are  then  dipped  into  warm  water  in 
order  to  loosen  the  ice  from  the  sides  of  the  container  and  the  ice  is  then  emptied 
out.  Practical  mechanical  installations  greatly  facilitate  the  necessary  work. 
To  supply  the  meat  coolers  with  fresh  air,  and  to  ventilate  them  when  they 
do  not  contain  anything  for  cooling,  the  ventilator  M  is  employed,  which 
transmits  the  change  of  air  through  the  air  shafts  F  and  Ff. 

In  place  of  the  salt-water  piping,  which  can  also  be  connected  with  the 
meat  cooler,  although  this  cannot  be  recommended,  certain  arrangements 
for  cooling  the  air  may  be  used  in  which  artificially  moving  air  is  run  over  the 
surfaces  irrigated  by  cold  salt  water  or  is  directed  through  the  salt  water. 
Of  the  various  systems  of  refrigeration  machines  those  of  Linde-Wiesbaden 
(ammonia),  Humbold-Kalk  (ammonia),  Riedinger-Augsburg  (carbonic  acid), 
Borsig-Tegel  near  Berlin  (sulphurous  acid)  are  the  best  known. 


METHODS  OF  CONSERVING  AfE AT  101' 

The  meat  coolers  proper,  contain  racks  constructed  of  iron  railings 
with  arrangements  for  hanging  the  meat.  In  abattoirs  usually  special 
chillrooms  and  cutting  rooms  are  also  constructed.  The  chilling  rooms 
are  brought  into  direct  connection  with  the  killing  floor,  from  which 
the  dressed  carcass  is  conveyed  without  much  effort  into  the  cooling 
rooms  the  temperature  of  which  is  not  kept  as  low  as  in  the  coolers 
proper.  For  the  preservation  of  fish,  game,  poultry,  etc.,  special 
cooling  rooms  are  constructed,  the  air  of  which  should  not  be  connected 
with  the  rooms  where  fresh  meat  is  kept. 

For  controlling  the  temperature  and  the  moisture  of  air  in  the  cool- 
ing room,  self-registering  thermometers  and  hygrometers  should  be 
installed.  In  some  places  they  are  required  by  regulation. 

Freezing. — The  freezing  of  meat  is  accomplished  for  preserving 
meat  an  unlimited  time,  as  for  transatlantic  transportation.  The 
equipment  for  this  purpose  is  the  same  as  that  described  for  the  re- 
frigeration plants;  the  air,  however,  is  cooled  below  0°  C.,  and  is  kept 
constantly  under  the  freezing  temperature. 

Chemical  Preserving  Methods. — Preservation  with  Salt. — The  pre- 
servative action  of  salt  forms  the  basis  of  the  oldest  method  of  preserving 
meat.  This  is  generally  practised  in  the  household,  as  well  as  in  the 
wholesale  trade,  and  known  as  the  salting,  or  pickling  of  meat.  Salting 
indicates  a  superficial  preservation  for  a  shorter  time,  while  in  pickling 
a  complete  penetration  of  the  meat  with  salt  is  obtained,  and  there- 
fore a  lasting  preservation.  This  is  based  principally  on  the  dehy- 
drating action  of  the  salt  and  less  on  its  germicidal  action. 

While  superficial  salting  may  be  applied  to  all  kinds  of  meats, 
pickling  is  best  adapted  for  pork,  especially  bacon,  on  account  of  its 
high  fat  content;  fine-fibered  beef  intermixed  with  fat  (brisket)  also 
produces  a  good  pickled  meat.  Lean  beef  as  well  as  veal  and  mutton 
get  dry  and  unpalatable  from  pickling. 

Regarding  the  application  of  the  salt,  nothing  further  need  be  said.  The 
procedure  of  pickling  depends  on  the  time  to  be  consumed  and  the  desire  for 
a  certain  degree  of  preservation  of  the  meat  products.  If  a  hurried  pickling 
(forced  pickling)  is  desired  and  abstraction  of  only  a  little  moisture,  it  is  best 
to  place  the  meat  in  a  salt  solution  (brine)  or  to  inject  it  into  the  meat  along 
the  side  of  a  bone  or  into  the  connective  tissue  with  a  special  brine  syringe 
supplied  with  a  hollow  needle. 

In  the  latter  case  the  salt  acts  osmotically  on  the  meat,  both  from  the  out- 
side and  from  the  inside.  The  keeping  quality  of  such  pickled  meat  is  not 
ve»y  high,  on  account  of  the  large  content  of  water,  and,  therefore,  such  meat 
is  usually  destined  for  early  consumption,  or  it  is  further  preserved  by  smok- 
ing. In  slow  pickling  the  surfaces  of  the  smaller  cuts  of  meat  are  rubbed  with 
salt,  arid  the  pieces  are  packed  into  barrels,  each  layer  of  meat  being  thoroughly 
covered  with  a  layer  of  salt.  The  quantity  of  salt  to  be  used  is  about  50  grams 
to  1  kg.  of  meat.  By  this  process  a  brine  also  forms,  the  water  content  of  which 
originates  almost  entirely  from  the  meat.  The  latter,  therefore,  dries  put 
considerably,  and  in  consequence  such  meat  possesses  a  better  keeping  quality. 
The  recently  recommended  "injection  pickling"  by  Fjelstrup,  by  injecting 
the  bloodvessels  with  brine  immediately  after  slaughter,  has  not  yet  reached 
a  practical  importance. 


102    PRODUCTION,  PR'EPARA  TION,  AND  CONSERVA  TION  OF  ME  A  T 

Meat  undergoes  the  following  changes  in  pickling: 

(a)  The  muscles  turn  gray  owing  to  changes  in  the  muscle  coloring 
matter.    To  prevent  this,  saltpeter  is  added  to  the  salt,  as  it  is  readily 
reduced  to  nitrous  acid,  which  changes  the  hemoglobin  into  a  bright 
red  derivative  (hemorrhodin,  Lehmann).     According  to  Haldame,  the 
action  of  the  nitrates  on  the  hemoglobin,  in  the  presence  of  oxygen 
and  reducing  substances,  develops  nitric  oxide  hemoglobin,  to  which 
the  uncooked  pickled  meat  also  owes  its  red  color.     Regarding  the 
red  color  of  the  pickled  meat  after  cooking,  see  page  90.    The  quantity 
of  saltpeter  usually  added  amounts  to  1|  to  2  grams  to  each  kilo  of 
meat,   and  no  injurious  quantities  of  this  cardiac  depressant  have 
ever  been  found  in  pickled  meat.    Glage  prefers  the  direct  use  of  small 
quantities  of  nitrates  in  the  pickling,  or  the  addition  of  alkaline  phos- 
phates to  the  brine  to  obtain  a  high  red  color.    The  addition  of  cane 
sugar  to  the  brine  or  salt  mixture  increases  their  powers  of  checking 
putrefaction. 

(b)  The  previously  mentioned  loss  of  water  depends  on  the  method 
of  pickling  and  the  original  contents  of  moisture  in  the  meat;  it  may 
amount  to  10  to  15  per  cent. 

(c)  The  abstraction  of  nutritive  substances,  as  a  result  of  pickling, 
is  not  to  be  underestimated. 

According  to  Polenske  it  amounts  to: 

In  three  weeks'  pickling  7.77  per  cent.  N.  and  34.72  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid  anhydride. 

In  three  months'  pickling  10.08  per  cent.  N.  and  54.46  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid  anhydride. 

In  six  months'  pickling  13.78  per  cent.  N.  and  54.6  per  cent,  phosphoric 
acid  anhydride. 

Besides  a  considerable  loss  of  extractive  substances  (meat  bases), 
potassium  salts  occurs  to  such  an  extent  that  pickled  meat  not  only 
possesses  a  relatively  smaller  nutritive  value  than  fresh  meat,  but  it  is 
also,  as  a  rule,  more  difficult  to  digest  (see  page  90) .  These  statements 
were  substantiated  by  Nothwang,  who  further  established  that  in  boiling 
and  stewing,  pickled  meat  also  loses  extractive  ingredients  and  phos- 
phoric acid. 

(d)  The  increase  of  weight  of  meat  in  pickling  also  depends  on  the 
method  of  procedure.     In  pickling  in  brine,  beef  gained  9.4  per  cent, 
after  three  weeks,  and  after  three  months,  13  per  cent,  of  the  original 
weight  (Polenske).    The  absorption  of  salts  after  fourteen  days'  pickling 
of  beef  at  4°  C.  amounted  to  an  average  of  8.35  per  cent,  of  saltpeter 
and  15.69  per  cent,  of  common  salt  (Kuschel). 

The  influence  of  pickling  on  the  meat  of  diseased  animals  has  been  over- 
estimated. Although  in  accordance  with  Forster's  investigations,  cultures 
of  anthrax  bacilli  under  the  influence  of  common  salt  are  destroyed  in  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours,  cultures  containing  spores  retain  their  virulence 
for  months.  Tubercle  bacilli  retained  their  infectivity  for  eighteen  days  in 
pickled  pieces  of  organs,  and  cultures  sprinkled  over  with  common  salt  remained 
virulent  for  two  months.  Bacillus  morbificans  bovis  and  Bacillus  enteritidis 


METHODS  OF  CONSERVING  MEAT  103 

were,  according  to  Stadler,  destroyed  in  concentrated  salt  solution  only  after 
three  and  four  and  one-half  weeks.  Cultures  of  the  bacillus  of  swine  erysipelas 
are  only  slowly  killed  through  salt  in  substance,  but  somewhat  more  quickly 
by  concentrated  salt  solution;  brine  exceeds  both  the  former  in  its  bactericidal 
action.  It  destroys  the  erysipelas  organisms  in  about  eight  days,  but  never- 
theless it  was  possible  to  demonstrate  virulent  bacilli  in  meat  which  had  been 
soaked  in  brine  for  about  seven  weeks.  Pickled  meat  contains  virulent  ery- 
sipelas bacilli  even  after  four  months  (Stadie) .  The  cultures  of  pyogenic  staphy- 
lococci  and  streptococci  acted  in  the  same  manner.  Animal  parasites,  if  present 
in  the  meat  (cysticercus,  trichinae),  are  positively  killed  by  thorough  pickling. 

Preservation  with  Boracic  Acid. — Although  the  preservative  action  of  boracic 
acid  (B3OaH)  and  its  salt  is  not  great,  as  they  act  only  in  checking  the  develop- 
ment of  bacteria,  yet  they  may  prevent  infection  and  decomposition,  and 
keep  fresh  meat  in  its  natural  color.  Therefore,  preservatives  containing 
boracic  acid  have  been  used  in  the  meat  industry  to  a  considerable  extent. 
In  many  meat  products  boracic  acid  causes  to  some  extent  increase  in  weight 
through  an  increase  of  their  water  contents. 

The  preservative  salts  containing  borax  are  on  the  market  under  various 
names.  The  best  known  are:  Barmenit  (common  salt  and  sodium  chloro- 
borate) ;  [sodium  chloroborate  is  sodium  borate  combined  with  chlorin] ;  double 
and  triple  preserving  salt  (boracic  acid,  saltpeter,  common  salt,  Glauber's 
salt);  boroglyceride  (a  product  containing  about  60  per  cent,  glycerine  and 
about  40  per  cent,  boracic  acid). 

The  injurious  effect  of  boracic  acid  and  its  salt  on  the  human  system  has 
been  debated  for  many  years.  In  the  practice  of  meat  inspection  the  use  of 
boracic  acid  and  its  salt  in  the  preservation  of  meat  foods  is  prohibited  in 
Germany  by  the  Imperial  Decree  of  February  16,  1902,  in  connection  with 
the  publication  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  of  February  18,  1902.  [Their  use 
is  also  prohibited  in  the  United  States  (see  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  22, 
Section  1).] 

Preservation  with  Sulphurous  Acid. — The  salts  of  sulphurous  acid  and  espe- 
cially the  sulphites,  are  brought  into  trade  under  the  name  of  preservative 
salts,  the  acid  or  primary  calcium  sulphite  (SO;!H2)Ca,  or  acid  potassium  and 
sodium  sulphite  (so-called  bisulphite)  S03HK  and  SO;5HNa,  or  also  neutral 
sodium  sulphite  S03NA2  mixed  with  common  salt,  Glauber's  salt,  sugar,  etc. 
As  already  indicated,  sulphurous  acid  salts  are  not  so  much  conserving  sub- 
stances for  meat  as  preservatives  of  muscle  coloring  matter.  Therefore,  they 
were  principally  employed  for  the  preservation  of  the  fresh  meat  color  on  the 
surface  of  pieces  of  meat,  and  especially  to  prevent  chopped  meat  from  turning 
gray.  The  action  of  the  sulphites  in  preventing  putrefaction  is  only  slight, 
so  that  putrefaction  may  develop  in  meat  containing  sulphites.  But  as  the 
initial  putrefaction  is  hidden  by  the  redness  of  the  muscle  coloring  matter, 
the  use  of  these  preserving  salts  in  connection  with  the  meat  trade  leads  not 
only  to  deceptions  regarding  the  freshness  of  meat,  but  also  to  the  consump- 
tion of  meat  which  may  have  injurious  properties  through  putrefaction. 

There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  the  immediate,  influence 
of  sulphites  on  the  health  of  human  beings.  In  the  German  Empire  the  decision 
was  against  the  sulphites,  and  their  addition  to  meat  products  was  prohibited 
in  accordance  with  the  Imperial  Decree  of  February  16,  1902,  in  connection 
with  the  publication  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  of  February  18,  1902.  [Sul- 
phites have  also  been  prohibited  in  the  United  States  in  accordance  with  B. 
A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  22,  Section  1.] 

For  the  test  of  meat  for  sulphites,  see  page  337. 

Other  Chemical  Conserving  Substances.-^-Chemical  conserving  substances, 
such  as  salicylic  acid,  sodium  silicofluoride,  ammonium  acetate,  sodium  acetate, 
formaldehyde,  lactic  acid,  glycerin  and  others  have  been  tried  in  an  experi- 
mental way  for  the  conservation  of  meats,  but  they  have  not  attained  any 
practical  importance.  Of  these  the  following  are  prohibited  in  connection 
with  the  preparation  of  meat  in  the  German  Empire:  Formaldehyde,  alkalies, 


104    PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

and  alkaline  earth,  hydroxides  and  carbonates,  fluorhydrogen  and  its  salts, 
salicylic  acid  and  its  combinations,  and  chlorine  acid  salts. 

[The  use  of  chemical  preservatives  in  the  preparation  and  preservation  of 
meat  and  meat-food  products  with  the  exception  of  common  salt  and  saltpeter 
is  prohibited  in  the  United  States,  and  the  measures  governing  the  same  are 
contained  in  B.  A.  I.  Order  and  Regulations.] 

The  bactericidal  action  of  acetic  acid  is  utilized  in  the  Deichstetter-Emmerich 
method  (see  page  93)  for  keeping  meat  fresh.  The  animal  is  slaughtered  with 
the  greatest  possible  cleanliness;  then  the  large  bloodvessels  are  infused  with 
dilute  acetic  acid,  and  the  surface  of  the  meat  is  sprayed  with  acetic  acid. 
The  keeping  of  the  meat  has  to  be  carried  out  as  described  on  page  93.  This 
method,  which  proves  an  undeniable  success  if  carefully  executed,  is,  however, 
a  failure  in  large  practice,  owing  to  the  frequent  untrustworthiness  of  persons 
having  the  work  in  charge. 

Conservation  by  Smoking. — The  preparation  of  meat  products  for 
keeping  under  the  preservative  influence  of  smoke  (smoked  products, 
ham,  bacon,  smoked  meat,  pickled  smoked  meat),  has  been  known 
since  the  oldest  times.  However,  only  such  meat  is  adapted  for  pre- 
servation with  smoke  as  contains  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of 
water  (pickled  meat),  or  is  of  such  consistency  that  the  latter  is  readily 
diminished  in  the  smoking,  making  an  easy  penetration  of  the  smoke 
possible  (sausages).  Meat  is  also  subjected  to  smoking  not  so  much 
for  preservation  as  for  the  palatableness  secured  from  the  penetration 
of  the  burning  substances  of  the  smoke. 

The  application  of  smoke  consists  in  the  development  of  proper 
smoke,  and  this  is  best  accomplished  by  a  slow  burning  of  wood  in 
the  form  of  sawdust.  Hard  woods,  and  especially  juniper  bush,  furnish 
the  best  smoke,  while  the  burning  of  pine  wood  is  useless  for  smok- 
ing purposes  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  turpentine  which 
it  contains.  The  smoking  process  may  be  carried  out  as  slow  or  as 
forced  smoking.  In  the  slow  smoking  the  meat  is  kept  for  days  and 
weeks  in  a  room  of  20°  to  25°  C.,  the  air  of  which  is  impregnated 
with  smoke  (smoking  room),  while  in  the  forced  or  hot  smoking  the 
products  (fish,  sausages)  are  exposed  only  a  short  time  to  the  smoke 
at  70°  to  100°  C.  There  is  also  a  so-called  artificial  or  quick  smoking, 
in  which  the  meat  or  sausage  is  dipped  into  a  mixture  of  pyroligneous 
acid,  water,  and  juniper  oil,  or  the  meat  is  covered  with  the  same  and 
then  dried  in  an  airy  place.  Decoctions  of  shining  soot  which  is  formed 
in  the  burning  of  wood  with  or  without  the  addition  of  salt  are  also 
supposed  to  be  applied  to  meat  products.  With  both  methods,  how- 
ever, the  air  is  not  to  conserve  the  meat  preparations,  but  to  impart 
to  them  a  smoky  taste. 

The  conserving  effect  of  smoking  on  meat  depends  upon  the  extrac- 
tion of  water  and  the  penetration  of  the  meat  with  gases  and  fumes 
of  the  smoke,  which  are  substances  preventing  putrefaction.  Among 
these  are  the  tar  products  and  hydrocarbons  soluble  in  water;  also 
acetic  acid,  creosote,  phenol,  cresol,  carbonic  acid,  ammonia,  etc. 

Concerning  the  action  of  smoking  on  microorganisms,  the  investigations 
of  Beu,  Serafini,  and  Ungaro  showed  that  even  pathogenic  germs  are  destroyed 
in  a  short  time  if  they  are  easily  reached  by  the  smoke.  In  the  smoking  of 


FOOD  PREPARATIONS  DERIVED  FROM  FOOD  ANIMALS     105 

infected  meat  it  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  a  coagulated  layer  soon 
forms  on  the  surface  making  the  penetration  of  the  smoke  more  difficult. 
Therefore,  the  germs  contained  on  the  inside  of  large  pieces  of  meat  may  be 
destroyed  only  with  difficulty.  This  is  also  influenced  by  the  water  content 
of  the  meat,  as  the  water  prevents  the  penetration  of  the  smoke.  The  bacilli 
of  hog  erysipelas  are  destroyed  in  two  weeks'  continual  and  intensive  smok- 
ing of  pickled  meat,  provided  the  pieces  do  not  exceed  2.5  kg.  in  weight  (Stadie). 


VARIOUS  FOOD  PREPARATIONS  DERIVED  FROM  FOOD 

ANIMALS 

Meat  Extract. — Although  meat  extract  is  not  a  food  but  a  delicacy  of 
animal  origin,  still,  on  account  of  its  extensive  consumption,  it  should  be  briefly 
mentioned  here.  The  principal  brand  of  meat  extract  is  that  discovered  by 
Pettenkofer,  and  named  in  honor  of  Liebig.  It  is  almost  exclusively  prepared 
in  America  from  lean  beef,  which  is  chopped  by  machine,  and  is  boiled  with 
little  water  under  high  steam  pressure  in  an  apparatus.  After  the  separation 
of  fat,  coagulated  albumen,  and  fibrin,  the  filtered  meat  broth  is  concentrated 
in  a  vacuum,  and  is  then  again  boiled  down  in  open  kettles  which  are  supplied 
with  stirring  apparatuses  until  a  thick  pap  is  formed,  which  is  filled  into  jars; 
30  to  32  kg.  of  lean  meat  gives  about  1  kg.  of  meat  extract.  The  extracted  meat 
fibers  are  dried  and  ground  and  shipped  to  Europe  as  American  meat  flour, 
where  it  is  utilized  for  food  purposes,  and  recently  also  for  the  preparation 
of  albumen. 

According  to  Stutzer,  meat  extract  contains  about  60  per  cent,  of  organic 
substances,  20  per  cent,  salt,  and  20  per  cent,  of  water.  The  organic  substances 
consist  principally  of  so-called  meat  bases — creatin,  creatinin,  sarkin,  xanthin, 
inosinacid,  karnosin,  aminoacid  (Baur  and  Barschall)  and  others,  as  well  as  small 
quantities  of  phosphocarnic  acid  and  lactic  acid.  Glycogen  is  also  generally 
present.  The  presence  of  succinic  acid  in  the  meat  extract  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  a  positive  indication  of  putrefaction.  The  salts  consist  of  about 
two-thirds  of  potassium  phosphate. 

.Owing  to  this  composition,  the  meat  extract  appears  as  a  spicy  delicacy 
which  stimulates  the  nerves  of  taste,  smell,  and  digestion. 

The  liquid  meat  extracts  which  are  brought  into  trade  as  CibiFs,  Koch's, 
and  Maggi's  extracts,  contain  much  less  organic  substances  than  Liebig's  and 
Kammerich's  meat  extract. 

[Meat  extract  is  also  prepared  in  the  United  States  to  a  large  extent  from 
the  meat  broth  obtained  from  the  boiling  of  meats  for  canning  purposes.  This 
is  boiled  down  and  concentrated  in  a  vacuum  to  a  desired  consistency,  and  is 
then  drawn  off  into  various  sized  containers.] 

Peptones. — The  effort  of  chemistry  to  convert  the  albumens  of  meat  into 
soluble  preparations  which  may  be  absorbed  without  any  further  change  in 
the  body  by  the  digestive  apparatus  lead  to  the  preparation  of  peptones. 

According  to  Stutzer,  pepsin  peptones  and  pancreatic  peptones  may  be 
distinguished.  The  preparation  of  the  latter  has  ceased  at  the  present  time. 
The  former  are  prepared  by  subjecting  meat  to  the  action  of  a  mixture  of 
pepsin  (extract  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach)  and  hydrochloric 
acid  in  the  known  physiological  dilution;  the  solution  is  then  filtered,  is  accu- 
rately neutralized  with  a  small  quantity  of  bicarbonate  of  soda,  and  finally 
steamed  in  vacuum.  The  peptone  thus  prepared,  contains  albumose  as  the 
principal  ingredient. 

The  opinions  regarding  the  nutritive  value  of  peptones  differ  widely,  and 
this  is  readily  explainable,  as  the  various  trade  preparations  contain  a  greatly 
varying  content  of  true  peptones.  Thus,  Stutzer  found  in  a  fluid  meat  pep- 
tone preparation,  12  to  15  per  cent,  peptone  equal  1.91  per  cent,  nitrogen; 
and  in  another,  dry  fibrin  peptone,  81  per  cent,  equal  14.56  per  cent,  nitrogen. 


106    PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

Fat  and  Tallow. — The  fats  of  food  animals  which  are  not  sold  in 
the  raw  state,  or  as  prepared  meat  products  (bacon,  etc.),  are  rendered 
to  serve  for  human  food,  and  the  connective-tissue  constituents  of 
the  fat  tissue  are  separated  from  it  in  the  form  of  cracklings.  The 
rendered  hog  fat,  under  the  name  of  lard,  forms  an  important  article 
of  trade,  which  is  principally  shipped  from  America.  The  freshly 
rendered  beef  tallow  is  also  sold  directly  for  food  purposes.  Larger 
quantities  of  it  are  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  oleomargarin  (olein), 
while  the  superfluous  quantities  of  tallow  are  chiefly  used  for  industrial 
purposes. 

Lard  forms  a  fine,  milk-white  homogeneous  mass  of  oleaceous  con- 
sistence and  peculiarly  agreeable  odor  and  taste.  Its  color  is  sometimes 
artificially  improved  by  the  addition  of  borax,  and  its  water  content 
may  be  artificially  increased  by  mixing  alum  or  calcium  hydrate  with  it. 

Such  manipulations,  as  well  as  adulterations  of  lard,  as  a  rule,  occur 
only  rarely  in  Germany,  but  they  were  formerly  carried  out  in  America, 
with  many  varieties  of  fats.  The  most  frequent  manipulation  is 
adulteration  with  cottonseed  oil.  There  are  varieties  of  lard  which 
contain  no  hog  fat  whatever,  but  are  prepared  from  beef  fat,  mutton 
fat,  cottonseed  oil,  cottonseed  stearin,  and  other  kinds  of  fats,  pignut 
oil,  oil  of  sesame,  palmseed  oil,  and  cocoanut  oil.  In  the  trade  the 
adulterated  lard  is  given  the  most  varied  names,  as  Cottolene,  Koto- 
suet,  Refined  Lard,  Pure  Refined  Lard,  Pure  Refined  Family  Lard, 
Fairbanks'  Lard,  Frying  Lard,  Hamburg  City  Lard,  etc. — on  the  other 
hand,  the  following  American  lards  are  unadulterated — Neutral  Lard, 
Leaf  Lard,  Choice  Kettle-rendered  Lard  (choice  lard),  and  Prime 
Steam  Lard. 

[In  accordance  with  the  Regulations  of  April  1,  1908,  governing 
meat  inspection  in  the  United  States,  all  products  sold  under  the 
trade  name  of  lard  must  consist  of  hog  fat,  as  the  said  regulations 
provide  that  the  true  name  must  be  given  to  all  products,  and  that 
false  or  deceptive  names  of  meat  and  meat-food  products  are  pro- 
hibited. Further,  it  is  provided  that  the  meat-food  products  which 
contain  substances  which  are  added  to  adulterate  the  same  must  bear 
a  label  stating  that  such  substances  have  been  added.  (See  B.  A.  I. 
Order  150,  Regulation  18,  Sections  1  to  14.)] 

According  to  the  German  Imperial  law  of  June  15,  1897,  regarding 
the  traffic  with  butter,  cheese,  lard,  and  their  substitutions,  all  prepara- 
tions resembling  lard  the  fat  content  of  which  does  not  consist  of 
hog  fat  must  be  declared  as  artificial  food  fat. 

The  so-called  sausage  fat,  known  principally  in  the  retail  trade, 
is  obtained  from  the  skimmings  of  the  sausage  broth  in  which  the 
sausages  are  cooked.  It  is  a  mixed  fat  containing  a  considerable  amount 
of  water  of  a  gray  to  grayish-green  color,  with  a  spicy  sausage  taste 
(principally  like  marjoram),  and  which  contains  small  meat  particles 
and  unmelted  pieces  of  fat.  It  spoils  very  easily. 

Under  the  term  margarin,  formerly  also  called  artificial  butter, 
sweet  cream  butterine,  Holland  butter,  Holburko,  etc.,  are  included 


FOOD  PREPARATIONS  DERIVED  FROM  FOOD  ANIMALS     107 

in  accordance  with  the  German  Imperial  law  of  June  15,  1897,  all 
those  preparations  which  resemble  cow  butter  or  butter  fat,  but  which 
do  not  entirely  originate  from  milk.  Margarin  was  first  prepared  by 
the  French  chemist  Mege-Mouries,  who,  in  1869,  made  public  the 
process  of  its  preparation.  Except  for  slight  changes  this  was  prac- 
tically identical  with  the  present  method.  The  fresh  beef  fat  is  washed, 
macerated,  and  after  adding  water,  potash,  and  stomach  mucous  mem- 
brane it  is  heated  to  about  50°  C.,  causing  the  liquid  fat  to  accumulate 
on  the  surface.  The  fat — the  so-called  "Premier  jus" — is  then  taken 
off,  is  clarified,  and  solidified  at  25°,  by  which  the  tri stearin  separates 
in  crystals,  while  the  triolein  and  tripalmitin,  which  together  are  also 
called  oleomargarin  (in  the  United  States,  oleo  oil),  remain  fluid  and 
are  separated  from  the  first  by  pressing.  To  every  50  kg.  of  oleo- 
margarin 25  liters  of  cows'  milk  and  25  liters  of  water,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  butter  coloring,  is  mixed,  and  the  mass  is  then  churned. 
The  fat  mixture  so  obtained  yields,  after  washing  and  salting,  a  fat 
which  tastes  like  butter.  In  accordance  with  the  Imperial  law,  10 
per  cent,  of  sesame  oil  must  be  added  in  order  that  the  margarin  itself, 
as  well  as  possible  mixtures  with  butter,  may  be  easily  detected 
chemically. 

If  margarin  is  cleanly  prepared  from  good  fat,  and  is  sold  under 
declaration,  no  objection  can  be  made  against  it  from  a  hygienic  stand- 
point. According  to  Jolle's  experiments  with  dogs,  margarin  is  just 
as  profitably  utilized  in  the  intestines  as  butter;  and  Adolph  Mayer, 
as  well  as  Kienzl,  found  in  the  comparative  experiments  on  men  only 
very  slight  differences  in  favor  of  butter.  Tubercle  bacilli  have  been 
found  in  margarin  as  also  in  butter  (Morgenroth) . 

[The  preparation  of  oleo  oil,  which  is  a  product  of  beef  fat,  com- 
prises an  important  industry  in  the  largest  packing  houses  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  the  principal  ingredient  of  butterine.  The  largest 
part  of  oleo  oil  manufactured  in  the  United  States  is  exported  to 
Europe,  principally  to  Holland  and  Germany,  where  it  is  utilized  for 
the  manufacture  of  butterine.  There  is  at  the  present  time  only  a 
comparatively  small  amount  of  butterine  manufactured  in  the  United 
States,  the  demand  for  that  product  being  somewhat  limited. 

In  accordance  with  an  act  of  Congress,  butterine  must  be  sold  in 
the  United  States  under  declaration,  and  no  coloring  is  permitted 
to  be  used  in  its  preparation,  except  by  the  payment  of  a  heavy  license.] 

Caviar  and  Smoked  Salmon. — The  preservation  of  fish  and  crustaceans, 
which  are  conserved  by  salting,  smoking,  drying,  inclosing  in  air-tight  cans, 
pickling,  etc.,  is  of  very  little  importance  for  the  general  purpose  of  the  subject 
under  consideration.  Only  the  caviar,  which,  on  account  of  its  high  nutritive 
value,  its  easy  digestibility,  and  its  palatability,  forms  a  widely  distributed 
food  and  delicacy,  and  smoked  salmon,  on  account  of  its  various  trade  prepara- 
tions, will  be  briefly  considered  here. 

Caviar  is  the  salted  spawn  of  many  varieties  of  sturgeons.  According  to 
Niebel,  it  is  obtained  principally  in  Russia,  on  the  lower  courses  of  the  Volga, 
Don,  in  the  Ural,  Aral  Sea,  and  Caspian  Sea;  in  Germany,  on  the  Baltic, 
North  Sea,  and  on  the  lower  course  of  .the  Elb;  in  America,  in  the  State  of 


108     PRODUCTION,  PREPARATION,  AND  CONSERVATION  OF  MEAT 

Oregon,  and  in  the  Territory  of  Alaska.  It  is  distinguished  as  fluid  or  granular, 
and  pressed  caviar.  The  first,  sprinkled  with  common  salt,  is  passed  through 
a  sieve  for  the  separation  of  the  adhering  membranes,  and  is  packed  into  barrels. 
The  pressed  caviar  consists  of  eggs  of  an  inferior  quality,  which  are  placed 
into  brine,  and  then  pressed  out  after  sufficient  absorption  has  taken  place. 

Relative  to  the  origin  and  quality,  it  is  distinguished  as  Russian,  American, 
and  Elb  caviar.  The  eggs  of  the  most  valuable — the  Russian  caviar — are 
dark  gray  to  black  in  color,  and  have  an  average  diameter  of  3.55  mm.;  besides, 
they  are  free  of  membranes  and  of  added  slimy  substances.  The  American 
and  Elb  caviar  are  about  the  same  in  quality.  The  eggs  of  the  former  are 
only  2.5  to  3  mm.  in  diameter,  are  blackish  gray  to  blackish  yellow,  are  softer 
than  those  of  the  Russian  caviar,  and  are  partly  injured,  In  the  Elb  caviar, 
the  eggs  are  still  smaller  and  darker.  According  to  Bischof,  a  decomposed 
American  caviar  which  has  been  specially  preserved  is  also  sold  under  the 
name  Elb  caviar. 

So-called  red  caviar  is  prepared  in  Russia  from  the  eggs  of  various  fish, 
and  in  Germany  from  the  eggs  of  the  pike,  carp,  and  other  species. 

For  the  chemical  composition  of  caviar,  according  to  Konig,  see  table,  page 
55.  Slightly  salted  caviar  does  not  contain  more  than  5  per  cent,  salt,  while 
strongly  salted  caviar  has  up  to  10  per  cent.  salt. 

According  to  Raebiger,  the  following  varieties  of  smoked  salmon  are  placed 
on  the  market : 

(a)  American  salmon,  which  is  supposed  to  originate  from  the  Oncorhynchus 
quinnat.  Back  and  abdominal  lines  run  forward  almost  parallel.  Scales, 
golden  yellow  and  shiny.  Color  of  flesh,  pink  to  brick  red.  The  muscles  and 
their  surrounding  connective  tissue  ("white  veins,"  in  practical  language) 
are  stronger  developed  than  in  the  Rhein  salmon. 

(6)  The  Rhein,  Elb,  and  Weser  salmon  have  a  highly  arched  back  and  a 
body  compressed  on  the  sides.  Back  and  abdominal  lines  approach  each 
other  considerably  toward  the  head.  Scales  are  silver  white;  toward  the  back 
they  are  blackish  brown  and  ovally  elongated.  Color  of  flesh,  pinkish  red  and 
with  a  slight  tinge  of  yellow.  They  have  a  heavy  cushion  of  white  fat. 

(c)  The  Baltic,  Volga,  and  Russian  salmon  have  a  long,  not  as  much  com- 
pressed body,  with  small  round  scales.      Meat  has  a  typical  salmon  color, 
is  very  rich  in  fat,  and  the  intramuscular  connective  tissue  is  loose  as  in  the 
American  salmon. 

(d)  The  fish  known  in  the  trade  as  sea  salmon,  is  the  Merluccius  vulgaris. 
Its  meat  is  white  and  poor  in  fat. 

(e)  The  Facon  salmon  is  prepared  from  trimmings  which  are  pressed  into 
parchment  hulls.     It  may  be  recognized  by  the  absence  of  the  irregularity 
in  the  course  of  the  " veins." 


CHAPTER    IV 

REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

[B.  A.  I.  ORDER  150.] 
REGULATION  1.     SCOPE  OF  INSPECTION 

SECTION  1.  All  slaughtering,  packing,  meat  canning,  salting,  rendering, 
or  similar  establishments,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  the  meat  or  meat- 
food  products  of  which,  in  whole  or  in  part,  enter  into  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce,  shall  have  inspection  under  these  regulations.  The  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  may  exempt  from  inspection  establishments  operated  by  farmers, 
retail  butchers,  or  retail  dealers  supplying  their  customers,  but  in  the  absence 
of  such  exemption  inspection  is  required. 

SECTION  2.  Branch  houses  of  official  establishments,  when  such  branch 
houses  are  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  and  slaughter  animals 
or  process  meat,  shall  be  considered  a  part  of  the  parent  house,  and  products 
received  into  such  branch  houses  or  sent  from  them  shall  be  subject  to  these 
regulations,  and  inspection  shall  be  maintained  therein. 

REGULATION  2.      ORGANIZATION  OF  FORCE 

SECTION  1.  Paragraph  1.  All  permanent  employees  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  engaged  in  the  work  of  meat  inspection  are  appointed  upon 
certification  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission  that  they  have  passed  the  exami- 
nation prescribed  by  that  commission.  Promotions  in  all  classes  are  made  on 
the  basis  of  efficiency,  deportment,  and  length  of  service.  Such  employees 
include: 

Paragraph  2.  Inspectors  in  Charge. — These  are  inspectors  assigned  by  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  to  supervise  official  work  at  each  official  station. 
Such  employees  report  directly  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
and  are  chosen  by  reason  of  their  fitness  for  responsibility  as  determined  by 
their  records  in  the  service.  At  stations  where  slaughtering  is  conducted,  only 
veterinary  inspectors  are  placed  in  charge. 

Paragraph  3.  Veterinary  Inspectors. — All  applicants  examined  for  these  posi- 
tions must  be  graduates  of  recognized  veterinary  colleges  having  a  course  of  not 
less  than  three  years  leading  to  the  degree.  All  final  antemortem  and  postmortem 
examinations  are  conducted  by  veterinarians.  At  some  stations  the  veterinarians 
are  assisted  in  making  preliminary  examinations  by  trained  laymen,  known  as 
inspectors'  assistants. 

Paragraph  4.  Travelling  Veterinary  Inspectors. — To  observe  the  conditions 
of  sanitation  of  the  establishments  at  the  various  stations,  note  the  processes 
of  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection,  confer  with  and  instruct  inspectors 
regarding  it,  with  a  view  to  a  uniform  system  throughout  the  country,  and  to 
report  these  matters  to  the  Washington  office,  constitute  the  principal  duties 
of  these  employees. 

Paragraph  5.  Laboratory  Inspectors. — These  employees  possess  technical 
training  in  microscopic  and  chemical  examination  of  meat-food  products, 


110  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

and  their  inspections  are  conducted  in  laboratories  located  at  various  slaughter- 
ing centres.  Pathological  laboratories  are  also  maintained,  to  which  diseased 
specimens  may  be  sent  when  necessary  for  diagnosis. 

Paragraph  6.  Meat  Inspectors. — These  employees  are  laymen  experienced 
in  the  curing,  canning,  packing,  or  otherwise  preparing  of  meat;  they  supervise 
that  work  and  the  use  of  permitted  preservatives  described  in  Regulation  22. 

Paragraph  7.  Travelling  Meat  Inspectors. — These  employees  perform  a  service 
similar  to  that  required  of  travelling  veterinary  inspectors,  but  along  the  line 
of  the  preparation  and  handling  of  meat  products. 

Paragraph  8.  Inspectors'  Assistants. — These  employees  are  laymen,  who  are 
first  assigned  to  routine  duties,  such  as  assisting  in  conducting  antemortem  and 
postmortem  examinations  and  in  the  examination  and  supervision  of  marking 
of  products. 

Paragraph  9.  Patrolmen. — Patrolmen  are  employed  to  patrol  the  establish- 
ments at  night,  to  oversee  the  receipts  and  shipments  of  meat,  and  to  observe 
any  operations  conducted  at  night.  They  consist  of  veterinarians,  inspectors' 
assistants,  or  meat  inspectors,  according  to  the  character  of  the  work  where 
assigned. 

Paragraph  10.  Skilled  Laborers. — These  employees  supervise  the  marking  of 
meat  and  meat  containers,  and  perform  similar  work.  They  are  eligible  for 
promotion  only  through  examination. 


REGULATION   3.     INTERPRETATION  AND  DEFINITION  OF  WORDS 

AND  TERMS 

Wherever  in  these  regulations  the  following  words,  names,  or  terms  are 
used  they  shall  be  construed  as  follows : 

SECTION  1.  Official  Establishment. — This  term  shall  mean  any  slaughtering, 
meat-canning,  salting,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment  at  which  inspec- 
tion is  maintained  under  the  meat-inspection  law  approved  June  30,  1906 
(34  Stat.,  674). 

SECTION  2.  Inspectors  and  Department  Employees. — These  terms  shall  mean, 
respectively,  inspectors  and  employees  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

SECTION  3.  "Inspected  and  Passed."  -This  phrase,  or  any  authorized 
abbreviation  thereof,  shall  mean  that  the  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat, 
and  meat-food  products  so  marked  have  been  inspected  and  passed  for  good 
under  these  regulations. 

SECTION  4.  Rendered  into  Lard  or  Tallow. — This  phrase  shall  mean  that  the 
carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  and  meat-food  products  so  designated  are 
allowed  to  be  made  into  edible  lard  or  edible  tallow. 

SECTION  5.  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned." — This  phrase  shall  mean 
that  the  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  and  meat-food  products  so  marked 
are  unfit  for  food  and  shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes. 

SECTION  6.  Carcass. — This  word  shall  apply  to  the  carcass  of  an  animal 
that  has  been  killed  under  these  regulations  and  shall  include  all  parts  which 
are  to  be  used  for  food. 

SECTION  7.  Primal  Parts  of  Carcasses. — This  phrase  shall  mean  the  usual 
sections  or  cuts  of  the  dressed  carcass  commonly  known  in  the  trade,  such 
as  sides,  quarters,  shoulders,  hams,  backs,  bellies,  etc.,  and  beef  tongues,  beef 
livers,  and  beef  tails,  before  they  have  been  cut,  shredded,  or  otherwise  sub- 
divided preliminary  to  use  in  the  manufacture  of  meat-food  products. 

SECTION  8.  Meat  or  Meat-food  Product.  Paragraph  1. — A  meat-food  product, 
within  the  meaning  of  the  meat-inspection  act  and  of  these  regulations,  is  con- 
sidered to  be  any  article  of  food  intended  for  human  use  which  is  derived  or 
prepared  in  whole  or  in  part  from  any  edible  portion  of  the  carcass  of  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  or  goats,  if  the  said  edible  portion  so  used  is  a  considerable  and 
definite  portion  of  the  finished  food. 


INSPECTION  OR  EXEMPTION  111 

Paragraph  2.  Mixture. — A  mixture  of  which  meat  is  an  ingredient  will  not  be 
considered  a  meat-food  product  unless  the  meat  contained  therein  is  a  definite  and 
considerable  portion  of  the  said  mixture.  But  where  such  mixture  is  prepared  in 
a  part  of  an  official  establishment,  the  sanitation  of  that  part  of  the  establish- 
ment will  be  supervised  by  the  department,  and  the  meat  or  meat-food  products 
will  be  inspected  before  it  enters  the  said  mixture.  The  mixture  shall  not  bear 
the  meat-inspection  legend  or  any  simulation  thereof.  If  any  reference  is 
made  to  Federal  inspection  it  shall  be  in  the  following  form:  "The  meat  con- 
tained herein  has  been  inspected  and  passed  at  an  establishment  where  Federal 
inspection  is  maintained."  Mixtures  such  as  mincemeat,  soups,  etc.,  which  come 
under  this  description  and  which  are  not  officially  labelled,  are  allowed  in  inter- 
state and  foreign  commerce  without  further  inspection,  and  without  certificates, 
subject  to  the  provisions  and  requirements  of  the  food  and  drugs  act  of  June  30, 
1906,  and  the  regulations  made  thereunder. 

SECTION  9.  Medical  Meat  Products. — Products  such  as  meat  juice,  meat 
extract,  etc.,  which  are  intended  only  for  medicinal  purposes  and  are  advertised 
only  to  the  medical  profession,  are  not  considered  meat-food  products  within 
the  meaning  of  this  order. 

SECTION  10.  Vinegar. — The  word  vinegar,  as  used  herein,  shall  mean  cider 
vinegar,  wine  vinegar,  malt  vinegar,  sugar  vinegar,  glucose  vinegar,  or  spirit 
vinegar. 


REGULATION  4.     INSPECTION  OR  EXEMPTION 

SECTION  1.  The  proprietor  or  operator  of  each  slaughtering,  packing,  meat- 
canning,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment  engaged  in  the  slaughtering  of  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  or  goats,  or  in  the  packing,  canning,  or  other  preparation  of  any 
meat-food  product,  for  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  shall  make  application  to 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  inspection  or  for  exemption  from  inspection, 
except  in  cases  where  inspection  or  exemption  is  already  in  effect.  In  case  of 
change  of  ownership,  or  change  of  location  of  an  establishment  already  having 
inspection,  a  new  application  shall  be  made.  Exemptions  under  the  law  can  be 
given  only  to  establishments  operated  by  retail  butchers  and  retail  dealers. 
Such  application  shall  be  in  writing,  addressed  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  shall  state  the  location  of  the  establishment,  and  shall  be 
made  on  blanks  which  will  be  furnished  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry  upon  request. 

SECTION  2.  Inspection  shall  not  be  begun  if  an  establishment  is  not  in  a 
sanitary  condition,  nor  unless  the  establishment  provides  and  guarantees  to 
maintain  adequate  facilities  for  conducting  such  inspection. 

SECTION  3.  If  in  the  judgment  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  the  retail 
butcher  or  retail  dealer  who  is  operating  an  establishment  and  engaged  in 
supplying  his  customers  through  the  medium  of  interstate  or  foreign  commerce 
is  entitled  to  exemption  from  Federal  inspection,  a  numbered  certificate  of 
exemption  will  be  furnished  to  the  applicant  for  use  with  transportation  com- 
panies and  other  companies  and  persons  in  securing  the  movement  of  his 
products.  If  an  establishment,  including  both  market  and  slaughter  house 
of  such  retail  butcher  or  dealer,  is  not  in  a  sanitary  condition,  a  certificate  of 
exemption  will  not  be  issued. 

SECTION  4.  Exempted  establishments  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  shall  be  maintained  in  a  clean  condition,  and  shall 
conform  to  the  same  regulations  as  govern  official  establishments  in  regard  to 
labelling,  dyes,  chemicals,  and  preservatives,  and  unsound,  unwholesome,  and 
unfit  meat. 


112  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 


REGULATION  5.     OFFICIAL  NUMBER 

SECTION  1.  Paragraph  1.  When  inspection  is  established  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  will  give  the  establishment  a  number,  and  this  number  shall 
be  used  to  mark  the  meat  and  meat-food  products  of  the  establishment  as 
hereinafter  prescribed. 

Paragraph  2.  Two  or  more  official  establishments  under  the  same  owner- 
ship or  control  may  use  the  same  establishment  number,  provided  a  serial 
letter  is  added  in  each  case  to  designate  the  establishment  and  to  enable  its 
product  to  be  identified. 

Paragraph  3.  Persons,  firms,  or  corporations  owning  subsidiary  companies 
having  legal  entity  may  use  the  names  of  such  companies,  provided  applica- 
tion has  been  made  for  inspection  and  it  has  been  granted,  the  inspection 
legend  in  such  case  to  bear  the  official  establishment  number  of  the  parent 
firm  or  corporation. 

Paragraph  4.  Each  official  establishment  must  be  separate  and  distinct 
from  any  other  establishment  or  department  in  which  animal  products  are 
handled  at  which  inspection  is  not  maintained.  When  two  or  more  companies 
prepare  their  products  in  the  same  official  establishment  they  must  obtain 
inspection  under  the  same  number.  The  name  of  the  distributor  may  appear 
upon  the  label. 

REGULATION  6.     ASSIGNMENT  OF  INSPECTORS,  ETC. 

SECTION  1.  The  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  will  designate 
an  inspector  to  take  charge  of  the  inspection  at  each  official  establishment,  and 
will  assign  to  said  inspector  such  assistants  as  may  be  necessary. 

SECTION  2.  For  the  purpose  of  enforcing  the  law  and  regulations  all  employees 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  shall  have  access  at  all  times,  by  day  or 
night,  whether  the  establishment  be  operated  or  not,  to  every  part  of  the 
establishment. 

SECTION  3.  Each  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  working 
under  these  regulations  will  be  furnished  with  a  numbered  badge,  which  he 
shall  wear  over  the  left  breast  on  the  outer  clothing  while  in  the  performance 
of  his  official  duties,  and  which  shall  not  be  allowed  to  leave  his  possession. 
This  official  badge  shall  be  sufficient  identification  to  entitle  him  to  admittance 
at  all  regular  entrances  and  to  all  parts  of  the  establishment  and  premises. 

SECTION  4.  Office  room,  including  light  and  heat,  shall  be  provided  by  pro- 
prietors of  establishments,  rent  free,  for  the  exclusive  use,  for  official  purposes, 
of  the  inspectors  and  other  employees  of  the  Department  assigned  thereto. 
The  room  or  rooms  set  apart  for  this  purpose  must  be  properly  ventilated, 
conveniently  located,  and  provided  with  lockers  suitable  for  the  protection  and 
storage  of  such  supplies  as  may  be  required;  all  to  meet  the  approval  of  the 
inspector  in  charge. 

REGULATION  7.     ALL  CARCASSES  AND  PRODUCTS  INSPECTED 

SECTION  1.  All  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  slaughtered  at  an  official  estab- 
lishment, and  all  meat  and  meat-food  products  prepared  therein,  shall  be 
inspected,  handled,  prepared,  and  marked  as  required  by  these  regulations. 

REGULATION  8.     NOTICE  OF  DAILY  OPERATIONS,  ETC. 

SECTION  1.  The  manager  of  each  official  establishment  shall  inform  the 
inspector  in  charge,  or  his  assistant,  when  work  has  been  concluded  for  the 
day,  and  of  the  day  and  hour  when  work  will  be  resumed.  Under  no  circurn- 


SANITATION  113 

stances  shall  any  department  of  an  establishment  be  operated  except  under 
the  supervision  of  an  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  All  slaughter- 
ing of  animals  and  the  preparation  of  meat  and  meat-food  products  shall  be 
done  within  reasonable  hours,  and  with  reasonable  speed,  the  facilities  of  the 
establishment  being  considered. 

SECTION  2.  Where  one  inspector  is  detailed  to  conduct  the  work  at  two 
or  more  small  establishments  where  few  animals  are  slaughtered  or  where 
but  a  small  quantity  of  meat  or  meat-food  products  is  prepared,  the  inspector 
in  charge  may  designate  the  hours  for  work. 

SECTION  3.  No  work  shall  be  performed  at  official  establishments  during 
any  day  on  which  such  work  is  prohibited  by  the  law  of  the  State  or  Territory 
in  which  the  establishment  is  located.  However,  the  Department  will  require 
that  it  be  judicially  determined  that  such  work  is  prohibited  by  the  State  law. 


REGULATION  9.     BRIBERY 

SECTION  1.  It  is  a  felony,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  for  any 
person,  firm,  or  corporation  to  give,  pay,  or  offer,  directly  or  indirectly,  to 
any  Department  employee  authorized  to  perform  any  duty  under  these  regula- 
tions any  money  or  other  thing  of  value  with  intent  to  influence  said  employee 
in  the  discharge  of  his  duty  under  these  regulations.  It  is  also  a  felony,  punish- 
able by  fine  and  imprisonment,  for  any  Department  employee  engaged  in  the 
performance  of  duty  under  these  regulations  to  receive  or  accept  from  any 
person,  firm,  or  corporation  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  any 
gift,  money,  or  other  thing  of  value  given  with  any  purpose  or  intent  what- 
soever. 

REGULATION  10.     SANITATION 

SECTION  1.  After  the  receipt  of  an  application  for  inspection  or  exemption 
an  examination  of  the  establishment  and  premises  will  be  made  and  the  require- 
ments for  sanitation  and  the  necessary  facilities  for  inspection  will  be  specified. 

SECTION  2.  Plans  and  specifications,  in  duplicate,  of  plants  for  which  applica- 
tion for  inspection  is  made,  also  of  new  plants  and  plants  to  be  remodeled, 
should  be  submitted  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

SECTION  3.  Official  establishments  and  establishments  to  which  certificates 
of  exemption  have  been  issued  shall  be  suitably  lighted  and  ventilated  and 
maintained  in  a  sanitary  condition,  and  shall  be  provided  with  efficient  drain- 
age, having  properly  trapped  or  other  approved  sewer  connections.  Rooms 
in  which  inspection  is  carried  on  shall,  by  heating  or  other  means,  be  kept 
reasonably  free  from  steam  and  other  vapors,  in  order  that  proper  inspection 
can  be  made.  All  work  in  such  establishments  shall  be  performed  in  a  cleanly 
and  sanitary  manner. 

SECTION  4.  Ceilings,  walls,  pillars,  partitions,  etc.,  shall  be  kept  in  a  sanitary 
condition,  and  when  necessary  they  shall  be  washed,  scraped,  painted,  or  other- 
wise treated  as  required.  Where  floors  or  other  parts  of  a  building  or  tables 
or  other  parts  of  the  equipment  are  so  old  or  in  such  poor  condition  that  they 
cannot  be  readily  made  sanitary  they  shall  be  removed  and  replaced  by  suit- 
able materials.  All  floors  upon  which  meats  are  piled  during  the  process  of 
curing  shall  be  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary 
condition,  and  all  meat  piled  upon  floors  shall  be  suitably  protected  from  trucks, 
etc.  Walks  and  platforms  or  approaches  leading  into  establishments  shall 
be  kept  clean  to  prevent  tracking  dirt  into  the  same. 

SECTION  5.  All  trucks,  trays,  and  other  receptacles,  all  chutes,  platforms, 
racks,  tables,  etc.,  and  all  knives,  saws,  cleavers,  and  other  tools,  and  all  utensils, 
machinery,  and  vehicles  used  in  moving,  handling,  cutting,  chopping,  mixing, 
canning,  or  other  processes  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  using. 


114  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

SECTION  6.  Managers  of  establishments  must  require  employees  to  be 
cleanly.  The  aprons,  smocks,  or  other  outer  clothing  worn  by  employees 
who  handle  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  of  a  material  that  is  readily 
cleansed  and  made  sanitary,  and  only  clean  garments  shall  be  worn.  Persons 
who  handle  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  required  to  keep  their  hands 
clean,  and  they  shall  be  required  also  to  pay  particular  attention  to  the  cleanli- 
ness of  their  boots  or  shoes. 

SECTION  7.  Persons  affected  with  tuberculosis  or  any  other  communicable 
disease  shall  not  be  employed  in  any  of  the  departments  of  establishments 
where  carcasses  are  dressed,  meat  is  handled,  or  meat-food  products  are  pre- 
pared; and  any  employee  of  such  establishment  who  may  be  suspected  of 
being  so  affected  shall  be  reported  by  the  inspector  in  charge  to  the  manager 
of  the  establishment  and  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

SECTION  8.  All  water  closets,  toilet  rooms,  and  dressing  rooms  shall  be 
entirely  separated  from  compartments  in  which  carcasses  are  dressed  or  meat 
or  meat-food  products  are  cured,  stored,  packed,  handled,  or  prepared.  Where 
such  rooms  open  into  compartments  in  which  meat  or  meat-food  products  are 
handled  they  must,  when  this  is  considered  necessary,  be  provided  with  properly 
ventilated  vestibules  and  with  automatically  closing  doors.  They  shall  be  con- 
veniently located,  sufficient  in  number,  ample  in  size,  and  fitted  with  modern 
lavatory  accommodations,  including  toilet  paper,  soap,  running  hot  and  cold 
water,  towels,  etc.  They  shall  be  properly  lighted,  suitably  ventilated,  and 
kept  in  a  sanitary  condition.  Convenient  and  sanitary  urinals  shall  be  pro- 
vided; and  washstands,  near  at  hand,  shall  also  be  provided. 

SECTION  9.  The  rooms  or  compartments  in  which  meat  or  meat-food 
products  are  prepared,  cured,  stored,  packed,  or  otherwise  handled  shall  be  free 
from  odors  from  toilet  rooms,  catch  basins,  casing  departments,  tank  rooms, 
hide  cellars,  etc.,  and  shall  be  kept  free  from  flies  and  other  vermin  by  screen- 
ing, or  other  methods.  All  rooms  or  compartments  shall  be  provided  with  cus- 
pidors of  such  shape  as  not  readily  to  be  upset  and  of  such  material  and  construc- 
tion as  to  be  readily  disinfected,  and  employees  who  expectorate  shall  be  required 
to  use  them. 

SECTION  10.  The  feeding  of  hogs  or  other  animals  on  the  refuse  of  slaughter 
houses  shall  not  be  permitted  on  the  premises  of  an  exempted  establishment 
or  an  official  establishment,  and  no  use  incompatible  with  proper  sanitation 
shall  be  made  of  any  part  of  the  premises  on  which  such  establishment  is  located. 
All  yards,  fences,  pens,  chutes,  alleys,  etc.,  belonging  to  the  premises  of  such 
establishments,  whether  they  are  used  or  not,  shall  be  maintained  in  a  sanitary 
condition,  and  no  nuisance  shall  be  allowed  in  the  establishment  or  on  its 
premises. 

SECTION  11.  Butchers  who  dress  or  handle  diseased  carcasses  or  parts  shall 
cleanse  their  hands  of  all  grease  and  then  immerse  them  in  a  prescribed  dis- 
infectant and  rinse  them  in  clear  water  before  dressing  or  handling  healthy 
carcasses.  All  butchers'  implements  used  in  dressing  diseased  carcasses  shall 
be  sterilized  either  in  boiling  water  or  by  immersion  in  a  prescribed  disinfectant, 
followed  by  rinsing  in  clear  water.  Facilities  for  such  cleansing  and  disinfection, 
approved  by  the  inspector  in  charge,  shall  be  provided  by  the  establishment. 
Separate  sanitary  trucks,  etc.,  which  shall  be  appropriately  and  distinctively 
marked,  shall  be  furnished  for  handling  diseased  carcasses  and  parts.  Follow- 
ing the  slaughter  of  any  animal  affected  with  an  infectious  disease,  a  stop  shall 
be  made  until  the  implements  have  been  cleansed  and  disinfected,  unless  other 
clean  implements  are  provided. 

SECTION  12.  Inspectors  are  required  to  furnish  their  own  implements  for 
use  in  dissecting,  incising,  or  examining  diseased  carcasses  or  unsound  parts, 
and  are  required  to  use  the  same  means  for  disinfecting  implements,  hands, 
etc.,  that  are  prescribed  for  employees  of  the  establishment. 

SECTION  13.  Due  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  meat  and  meat-food  products 
from  falling  on  the  floor;  and  in  the  event  of  their  having  so  fallen,  they  must 
be  condemned  or  the  soiled  portions  removed  and  condemned.  When  meat 


ANTEMORTEM  EXAMINATION  AND  INSPECTION  115 

or  meat-food  products  are  being  emptied  into  tanks,  some  device,  such  as  a 
metal  funnel,  must  be  used. 

SECTION  14.  Carcasses  shall  not  be  inflated  with  air  from  the  mouth,  and 
no  inflation  of  carcasses  except  by  mechanical  means  shall  be  allowed.  Car- 
casses shall  not  be  dressed  with  skewers,  knives,  etc.,  that  have  been  held  in 
the  mouth.  Skewers  shall  be  cleaned  before  being  used  again.  Spitting  on 
whetstones  or  steels  when  sharpening  knives  shall  not  be  allowed. 

SECTION  15.  Only  good,  clean,  and  wholesome  water  and  ice  shall  be  used 
in  the  preparation  of  carcasses,  parts,  meat,  or  meat-food  products.  Whenever 
there  is  any  doubt  regarding  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  water  supply,  notice 
shall  be  sent  immediately  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

SECTION  16.  Wagons  or  cars  in  which  meat  or  meat-food  products  are 
transported  shall  be  kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition.  The  wagons  used 
in  transporting  loose  meat  between  official  establishments  shall  be  so  closed 
and  covered  that  the  contents  shall  be  kept  clean,  and  so  constructed  that  they 
may,  when  necessary,  be  locked  and  sealed  with  Government  seals,  which 
seals  shall  be  affixed  and  broken  only  by  employees  of  the  Department. 

SECTION  17.  Skins  and  hides  from  animals  condemned  for  tuberculosis  or 
any  other  disease  infectious  to  man,  but  showing  no  outward  appearance  of 
disease,  may  be  removed  (except  as  provided  in  Regulation  13,  Section  2),  for 
tanning  or  other  uses  in  the  arts  when  disinfected  as  follows:  Each  skin  and 
hide  must  be  immersed  for  not  less  than  five  minutes  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution 
of  liquor  cresolis  compositus  or  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  or  a  1 
to  1000  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury.  The  process  of  skinning  and  dipping 
must  be  conducted  entirely  in  the  retaining  room,  or  other  specially  prepared 
place,  approved  by  the  inspector  in  charge,  for  final  inspection. 


REGULATION  11.    ANTEMORTEM  EXAMINATION  AND  INSPECTION 

SECTION  1.  An  antemortem  examination  and  inspection  shall  be  made 
of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  about  to  be  slaughtered  before  they  shall 
be  allowed  to  be  killed  in  an  official  establishment.  Satisfactory  facilities  for 
conducting  said  inspection  and  for  separating  and  holding  apart  from  passed 
animals  those  marked  "U.  S.  Suspect"  shall  be  provided. 

SECTION  2.  All  animals  showing  symptoms  or  suspected  of  being  affected 
with  any  disease  or  condition  which,  under  these  regulations,  would  probably 
cause  their  condemnation  in  whole  or  in  part  when  slaughtered  shall  be  marked 
by  affixing  to  the  animal  a  metal  tag  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Suspect?'  All 
such  animals,  except  as  hereinafter  provided,  shall  be  set  apart  and  slaughtered 
separately  from  other  animals  at  an  official  establishment. 

SECTION  3.  Animals  which  have  been  tagged  for  pregnancy  or  for  having 
recently  given  birth  to  young,  and  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  any  infec- 
tious or  contagious  disease,  and  vaccine  animals  with  unhealed  lesions  accom- 
panied by  fever  and  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  any  other  infectious  or 
contagious  disease,  are  not  required  to  be  slaughtered,  but  before  any  such 
animal  is  removed  the  tag  shall  be  detached  by  a  Department  employee  and 
returned  with  his  report  t'o  the  inspector  in  charge. 

SECTION  4.  If  any  pathological  condition  is  suspected  in  which  the  question 
of  temperature  is  important,  such  as  Texas  fever,  anthrax,  pneumonia,  black- 
leg, or  septicemia,  the  exact  temperature  should  be  taken.  Due  consideration 
however,  must  be  given  to  the  fact  that  extremely  high  temperature  may 
be  found  in  otherwise  normal  hogs  when  subjected  to  exercise  or  excitement, 
and  a  similar  condition  may  obtain  to  a  less  degree  among  other  classes  of 
animals. 

SECTION  5.  Animals  commonly  termed  "downers,"  or  crippled  animals, 
shall  be  tagged  before  slaughter  as  provided  for  in  Regulation  17,  Section  1, 
for  the  purpose  of  identification  at  the  time  of  slaughter,  and  shall  be  passed 
upon  in  accordance  with  these  regulations. 


116  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

REGULATION  12.     POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION  AT  TIME  OF 

SLAUGHTER 

SECTION  1.  A  careful  inspection  shall  be  made  of  all  animals  at  the  time  of 
slaughter.  The  head,  tongue,  tail,  thymus  gland,  and  all  viscera,  and  all  parts 
and  blood  used  in  the  preparation  of  meat-food  or  medical  products,  shall  be 
retained  in  such  manner  as  to  preserve  their  identity  until  after  postmortem 
examination  has  been  completed,  in  order  that  they  may  be  identified  in  case 
of  condemnation  of  the  carcass. 

SECTION  2.  Carcasses  and  parts  thereof  found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  whole- 
some, and  fit  for  human  food  shall  be  passed  and  marked  as  provided  in  these 
regulations. 

SECTION  3.  Should  any  lesion  of  disease  or  other  condition  that  would 
render  the  meat  or  any  organ  unfit  for  food  purposes  be  found  on  postmortem 
examination,  the  carcass,  part,  or  organ  shall  be  marked  immediately  with 
a  tag,  as  provided  in  Regulation  17,  Section  3.  Carcasses  which  have  been  so 
marked  shall  not  be  washed  or  trimmed  unless  such  washing  or  trimming  is 
authorized  by  the  inspector. 


REGULATION  13.     DISPOSAL  OF  DISEASED  CARCASSES  AND 

ORGANS 

SECTION  1.  General  Statement. — The  carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses  of  all 
animals  slaughtered  at  an  official  establishment  and  found  at  time  of  slaughter 
or  at  any  subsequent  inspection  to  be  affected  with  any  of  the  diseases  or  con- 
ditions named  below  shall  be  disposed  of  according  to  the  section  of  this  regu- 
lation pertaining  to  the  disease  or  condition.  It  is  to  be  understood,  however, 
that  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  impracticable  to  formulate  rules  covering  every 
case,  and  to  designate  at  just  what  stage  a  process  becomes  loathsome  or  a 
disease  noxious,  the  decision  as  to  the  disposal  of  all  carcasses,  parts,  or  organs 
not  specifically  covered  by  these  regulations  shall  be  left  to  the  veterinary 
inspector  in  charge. 

SECTION  2.  Anthrax  or  Charbon. — All  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  anthrax 
or  charbon,  regardless  of  the  extent  of  the  disease,  and  including  the  hide, 
hoofs,  horns,  viscera,  fat,  blood,  and  all  other  portions  of  the  animal,  shall 
be  condemned  and  immediately  incinerated.  The  killing  bed  upon  which 
the  animal  was  slaughtered  shall  be  disinfected  with  a  10  per  cent,  solution 
of  formalin,  and  all  knives,  saws,  cleavers,  and  other  instruments  which  have 
come  in  contact  with  the  carcass  shall  be  treated  as  provided  in  Regulation 
10,  Section  11,  before  being  used  upon  another  carcass. 

SECTION  3.  Blackleg. — Carcasses  of  animals  showing  lesions  of  blackleg 
shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  4.  Hemorrhagic  Septicemia. — Carcasses  of  animals  affected  with 
hemorrhagic  septicemia  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  5.  Pyemia  and  Septicemia.— Carcasses  showing  lesions  of  pyemia 
or  septicemia  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  6.  Vaccinia. — Carcasses  of  vaccine  animals  mentioned  under 
Regulation  11,  Section  3,  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  7.  Rabies. — Carcasses  of  animals  which  showed  symptoms  of 
rabies  before  slaughter  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  8.  Tetanus. — Carcasses  of  animals  which  showed  symptoms  of 
tetanus  before  slaughter  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  9.  Malignant  Epizootic  Catarrh. — Carcasses  of  animals  affected 
with  malignant  epizootic  catarrh  and  showing  generalized  inflammation  of 
the  mucous  membranes  shall  be  condemned. 


DISPOSAL  OF  DISEASED  CARCASSES  AND  ORGANS        117 

SECTION  10.  Hog  Cholera  and  Swine  Plague. — Paragraph  1.  Carcasses 
showing  well-marked  and  progressive  lesions  of  hog  cholera  or  swine  plague 
in  more  than  two  of  the  organs  (skin,  kidneys,  bones,  or  lymphatic  glands) 
shall  be  condemned. 

Paragraph  2.  Provided  they  are  well  nourished,  carcasses  showing  slight 
and  limited  lesions  of  these  diseases  may  be  passed. 

Paragraph  3.  Carcasses  which  reveal  lesions  more  numerous  or  advanced 
than  those  for  carcasses  to  be  passed,  but  not  so  severe  as  the  lesions  described 
for  carcasses  to  be  condemned,  may  be  rendered  into  lard,  provided  they  are 
ccoked  by  steam  for  four  hours  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  220  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  or  at  a  pressure  of  four  pounds. 

Paragraph  4.  In  inspecting  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  hog  cholera  or 
swine  plague  in  the  skin,  bones,  kidneys,  or  lymphatic  glands,  due  considera- 
tion shall  be  given  to  the  extent  and  severity  of  the  lesions  found  in  the  viscera. 

SECTION  11.  Actinomycosis  or  Lumpy  Jaw. — Paragraph  1.  If  a  carcass 
affected  with  actinomycosis  of  the  head  or  lumpy  jaw  is  in  a  well-nourished 
condition  and  there  is  no  evidence  upon  postmortem  examination  that  the 
disease  has  extended  from  a  primary  area  of  infection  in  the  head,  the  carcass 
may  be  passed,  but  the  head,  including  the  tongue,  shall  be  condemned. 

Paragraph  2.  Carcasses  of  animals  showing  uncomplicated  localized  actino- 
mycotic  lesions  other  than,  or  in  addition  to,  those  specified  in  Paragraph  1 
of  this  section  may  be  passed  after  the  infected  organs  and  parts  have  been 
removed  and  condemned. 

Paragraph  3.  Carcasses  of  animals  showing  a  generalized  actinomycosis 
shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  12.  Caseous  Lymphadenitis. — When  the  lesions  of  caseous  lymph- 
adenitis are  limited  to  the  superficial  lymphatic  glands  or  to  a  few  nodules  in 
an  organ,  involving  also  the  adjacent  lymphatic  glands,  and  the  carcass  is  well 
nourished,  the  meat  may  be  passed  after  the  affected  parts  are  removed  and 
condemned.  Extensive  lesions  of  caseous  lymphadenitis,  with  or  without 
pleuritic  adhesions,  are  found  in  the  lungs,  or  if  several  of  the  visceral  organs 
contain  caseous  nodules  and  the  carcass  is  emaciated,  it  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  13.  Tuberculosis. — Paragraph  1.  The  following  principles  are 
declared  for  guidance  in  passing  on  carcasses  affected  with  tuberculosis: 

Principle  A. — Fundamental  Thought. — The  fundamental  thought  is  that 
meat  should  not  be  used  for  food  if  it  contains  tubercle  bacilli,  if  there  is  a 
reasonable  possibility  that  it  may  contain  tubercle  bacilli,  or  if  it  is  impreg- 
nated with  toxic  substances  of  tuberculosis  or  associated  septic  infections. 

Principle  B. — Lesions  Localized  and  Not  Numerous. — On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  lesions  are  localized  and  not  numerous,  if  there  is  no  evidence  of  dis- 
tribution of  tubercle  bacilli  through  the  blood,  or  by  other  means,  to  the  muscles 
or  to  parts  that  may  be  eaten  with  the  muscles,  and  if  the  animal  is  well  nour- 
ished and  in  good  condition,  there  is  no  proof,  or  even  reason  to  suspect,  that 
the  flesh  is  unwholesome. 

Principle  C. — Generalized  Tuberculosis. — Evidences  of  generalized  tuber- 
culosis are  to  be  sought  in  such  distribution  and  number  of  tuberculous  lesions 
as  can  be  explained  only  upon  the  supposition  of  the  entrance  of  tubercle  bacilli 
in  considerable  number  into  the  systemic  circulation.  Significant  of  such 
generalization  are  the  presence  of  numerous  uniformly  distributed  tubercles 
throughout  both  lungs,  also  tubercles  in  the  spleen,  kidneys,  bones,  joints,  and 
sexual  glands,  and  in  the  lymphatic  glands  connected  with  these  organs  and 
parts,  or  in  the  splenic,  renal,  prescapular,  popliteal,  and  inguinal  glands, 
when  several  of  these  organs  and  parts  are  coincidentally  affected. 

Principle  D. — Localized  Tuberculosis. — By  localized  tuberculosis  is  under- 
stood tuberculosis  limited  to  a  single  or  several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body 
without  evidence  of  recent  invasion  of  numerous  bacilli  into  the  systemic 
circulation. 

Paragraph  2.  Rules  of  Disposal  of  Tuberculous  Meat.  Entire  Carcass  Con- 
demned.— The  following  rules  shall  govern  the  disposal  of  tuberculous  meat: 


118  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

Rule  A. — The  entire  carcass  shall  be  condemned — 

(a)  When  it  was  observed  before  the  animal  was  killed  that  it  was  suffering 
with  fever. 

(b)  When  there  is  a  tuberculous  or  other  cachexia,  as  shown  by  anemia 
and  emaciation. 

(c)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  generalized,  as  shown  by  their  pre- 
sence not  only  at  the  usual  seats  of  primary  infection,  but  also  in  parts  of  the 
carcass  or  the  organs  that  may  be  reached  by  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  only 
when  they  are  carried  in  the  systemic  circulation.    Tuberculous  lesions  in  any 
two  of  the  following-mentioned  organs  are  to  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  generali- 
zation when  they  occur  in  addition  to  local  tuberculous  lesions  in  the  digestive 
or  respiratory  tracts,  including  the  lymphatic  glands  connected  therewith: 
Spleen,  kidney,  uterus,  udder,  ovary,  testicle,  adrenal  gland,  brain,  or  spinal 
cord  or  their  membranes.    Numerous  uniformly  distributed  tubercles  through- 
out both  lungs  also  afford  evidence  of  generalization. 

(d)  When  the  lesions  of   tuberculosis   are  found  in  the  muscles  or  inter- 
muscular  tissue  or  bones  or  joints,  or  in  the  body  lymphatic  glands  as  a  result 
of  draining  the  muscles,  bones,  or  joints. 

(e)  When  the  lesions  are  extensive  in  one  or  both  body  cavities. 

(/)  When  the  lesions  are  multiple,  acute,  and  actively  progressive.  (Evidence 
of  active  progress  consists  in  signs  of  acute  inflammation  about  the  lesions,  or 
liquefaction  necrosis,  or  the  presence  of  young  tubercles.) 

Rule  B. — Part  of  Carcass  Condemned. — An  organ  or  a  part  of  a  carcass  shall 
be  condemned— 

(a)  When  it  contains  lesions  of  tuberculosis. 

(6)  When  the  lesion  is  immediately  adjacent  to  the  flesh,  as  in  the  case  of 
tuberculosis  of  the  parietal  pleura  or  peritoneum,  not  only  the  membrane 
or  part  affected,  but  also  the  adjacent  thoracic  or  abdominal  wall  is  to  be  con- 
demned. 

(c)  When  it  has  been  contaminated  by  tuberculous  material,  through  contact 
with  the  floor,  a  soiled  knife,  or  otherwise. 

(d)  All  heads  showing  lesions  of  tuberculosis  shall  be  condemned. 

(e)  An  organ  shall  be  condemned  when  the  corresponding  lymphatic  gland 
is  tuberculous. 

Rule  C. — Carcass  Passed. — The  carcass,  if  the  tuberculous  lesions  are  limited 
to  a  single  or  several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  (except  as  noted  in  Rule  A), 
without  evidence  of  recent  invasion  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  systemic  circula- 
tion shall  be  passed  after  the  parts  containing  the  localized  lesions  are  removed 
and  condemned  in  accordance  with  Rule  B. 

Rule  D. — Carcass  Rendered  into  Lard  or  Tallow. — Carcasses  which  reveal 
lesions  more  numerous  than  those  described  or  carcasses  to  be  passed  (Rule  C), 
but  not  so  severe  as  the  lesions  described  for  carcasses  to  be  condemned 
(Rule  A),  may  be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow  if  the  distribution  of  the  lesions 
is  such  that  all  parts  containing  tuberculous  lesions  can  be  removed.  Such 
carcasses  shall  be  cooked  by  steam  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  220°  F.  for 
not  less  than  four  hours. 

SECTION  14.  Texas  Fever. — Carcasses  showing  lesions  to  warrant  the  diag- 
nosis of  Texas  fever  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  15.  Parasitic  Icterohematuria. — Carcasses  of  sheep  affected  with 
parasitic  icterohematuria  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  16.  Mange  or  Scab. — Carcasses  of  animals  affected  with  mange,  or 
scab,  in  advanced  stages,  or  showing  emaciation  or  extension  of  the  inflamma- 
tion to  the  flesh,  shall  be  condemned.  When  the  disease  is  slight  the  carcass 
may  be  passed. 

SECTION  17.  Tapeworm  Cysts.— Paragraph  1.  Carcasses  of  animals  affected 
with  tapeworm  cysts,  known  as  Cysticercus  bovis  and  Cysticercus  cellulosce,  shall 
be  rendered  into  tallow  or  lard,  unless  the  infestation  is  excessive,  in  which  case 
the  carcass  shall  be  condemned. 


DISPOSAL  OF  DISEASED  CARCASSES  AND  ORGANS         119 

Paragraph  2.  Carcasses  of  animals  found  infested  with  gid  bladder  worms 
(Ccenurus  cerebralis,  Multiceps  socialis)  may  be  passed  after  condemnation  of 
the  infected  organ  (brain,  spinal  cord). 

Paragraph  3.  Carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses  found  infested  with  the  hydatid 
cyst  (echinococcus)  may  be  passed  after  condemnation  of  the  infected  part 
or  organ. 

SECTION  IS.  Infections  that  may  Cause  Meat  Poisoning. — -All  carcasses  of 
animals  so  infected  that  consumption  of  the  meat  or  meat-food  products  thereof 
may  give  rise  to  meat  poisoning  shall  be  condemned.  This  section  covers  all 
carcasses  showing  signs  of — 

(a)  Acute  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  pleura,  pericardium,  peritoneum,  or 
meninges. 

(6)  Septicemia  or  pyemia,  whether  puerperal,  traumatic,  or  without  any 
evident  cause. 

(c)  Severe  hemorrhagic  or  gangrenous  enteritis  or  gastritis. 

(d)  Acute  diffuse  metritis  or  mammitis. 

(e)  Polyarthritis. 

(/)  Phlebitis  of  the  umbilical  veins. 

(g)  Traumatic  pericarditis. 

(h)  Any  other  inflammation,  abscess,  or  suppurating  sore  if  associated  with 
acute  nephritis,  fatty  and  degenerated  liver,  swollen  soft  spleen,  marked  pul- 
monary hyperemia,  general  swelling  of  lymphatic  glands,  and  diffuse  redness 
of  the  skin,  either  singly  or  in  combination. 

Immediately  after  slaughter  of  any  animal  so  diseased  the  premises  and 
implements  used  must  be  thoroughly  disinfected  as  prescribed  elsewhere  in 
these  regulations.  The  part  of  any  carcass  coming  into  contact  with  the  carcass 
or  any  part  of  the  carcass  of  any  animal  covered  by  this  section,  other  than 
those  affected  with  the  diseases  mentioned  in  (a)  above,  or  with  the  place 
where  such  animal  was  slaughtered,  or  with  the  implements  used  in  the  slaughter, 
before  thorough  disinfection  of  such  place  and  implements  has  been  accom- 
plished, or  with  any  other  contaminated  object,  shall  be  condemned;  in  case 
the  contaminated  part  is  not  removed  from  the  carcass  within  two  hours  after 
such  contact  the  whole  carcass  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  19.  Icterus. — Carcasses  affected  with  icterus  and  showing  an  intense 
yellow  or  greenish-yellow  discoloration  after  proper  cooling  shall  be  condemned. 
Carcasses  which  exhibit  a  yellowish  tinge  directly  after  slaughter,  but  lose 
this  discoloration  on  chilling,  may  be  passed  for  food. 

SECTION  20.  Uremia  and  Sexual  Odor. — Carcasses  which  give  off  the  odor 
of  urine  or  a  strong  sexual  odor  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  21.  Urticaria,  etc. — Hogs  affected  with  urticaria  (diamond-skin 
disease),  Tinea  tonsurans,  Demodex  folliculorum,  or  erythema  may  be  passed 
after  detaching  and  condemning  the  skin,  if  the  carcass  is  otherwise  fit  for 
food. 

SECTION  22.  Melanosis,  etc. — Carcasses  of  animals  showing  any  disease, 
such  as  generalized  melanosis,  pseudoleukemia,  etc.,  which  affects  the  system 
of  the  animal  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  23.  Tumors,  Bruises,  Abscesses,  Liver  Flukes,  etc. — Any  organ 
or  part  of  a  carcass  which  is  badly  bruised  or  which  is  affected  by  tumors, 
malignant  or  benign,  abscesses,  suppurating  sores,  or  liver  flukes  shall  be 
condemned ;  but  when  the  lesions  are  so  extensive  as  to  affect  the  whole  carcass, 
the  whole  carcass  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  24.  Emaciation  and  Anemia. — Carcasses  of  animals  too  emaciated 
or  anemic  to  produce  wholesome  meat,  and  carcasses  which  show  a  slimy 
degeneration  of  the  fat  or  a  serous  infiltration  of  the  muscles  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  25.  Milk  Fever  and  Railroad  Sickness. — Carcasses  of  animals  show- 
ing symptoms  of  milk  fever  or  railroad  sickness  at  the  time  of  slaughter  shall 
be  condemned,  as  the  flesh  of  such  animals  is  frequently  darker  in  color  and 
more  watery  than  is  natural,  and  the  present  view  of  the  pathology  of  at  least 
the  first  disease  suggests  autointoxication. 


120  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

SECTION  26.  Pregnancy  and  Parturition. — Carcasses  of  animals  in  advanced 
stages  of  pregnancy  (showing  signs  of  parturition),  also  carcasses  of  animals 
which  have  within  ten  days  given  birth  to  young,  and  in  which  there  is  no 
evidence  of  septic  infection,  may  be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow,  if  desired 
by  the  manager  of  the  establishment,  otherwise  they  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  27.  Immaturity. — Carcasses  of  animals  too  immature  to  produce 
wholesome  meat,  all  unborn  and  stillborn  animals,  also  carcasses  of  calves, 
pigs,  kids,  and  lambs  under  three  weeks  of  age,  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  28.  Diseased  Parts. — In  all  cases  where  carcasses  showing  localized 
lesions  of  disease  are  passed  or  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow,  the  diseased  parts 
must  be  removed  before  the  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag  is  taken  from  the  carcass, 
and  such  parts  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  29.  Suffocation. — Hogs  which  have  been  allowed  to  pass  into  the 
scalding  vat  alive  or  have  been  suffocated  in  other  ways  shall  be  condemned. 

SECTION  30.  Dead  Animals. — All  animals  that  die  in  abattoir  pens,  and 
those  in  a  dying  condition  before  slaughter,  shall  be  condemned  and  tagged 
as  provided  in  Regulation  17,  Section  2.  In  conveying  to  the  tank  animals 
which  have  died  in  the  pens  of  the  establishment,  they  shall  not  be  allowed 
to  pass  through  compartments  in  which  food  products  are  prepared.  No  dead 
animals  shall  be  brought  into  an  establishment  for  rendering  from  outside  the 
premises  of  said  establishment  unless  permission  is  first  obtained  from  the  Chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

SECTION  31.  Bruised  Parts. — When  a  portion  of  a  carcass  is  to  be  con- 
demned on  account  of  slight  bruises,  the  bruised  portion  shall  be  removed 
immediately  and  tanked,  and  the  remainder  of  the  carcass  shall  be  marked 
"  Inspected  and  Passed."  When  desired,  a  retaining  room  may  be  provided 
in  one  part  of  the  cooler  for  the  retention  of  such  carcasses  until  after  they 
are  chilled,  when  the  bruised  portion  may  be  removed. 

SECTION  32.  Portions  of  Intestines. — Portions  of  intestines  that  show  evidence 
of  infestation  with  esophagostoma  or  other  nodular  affections  shall  be  con- 
demned. 

SECTION  33.  Evisceration  of  Diseased  Hogs. — Hog  carcasses  found  before 
evisceration  has  taken  place  to  be  affected  with  an  infectious  or  contagious 
disease,  including  tuberculosis,  shall  not  be  eviscerated  at  the  regular  killing 
bed  or  bench,  but  shall  be  taken,  separate  from  other  carcasses,  to  the  retain- 
ing room  or  other  specially  prepared  place  and  there  opened  and  examined. 


REGULATION  14.     "RETAINING"  ROOMS 

SECTION  1.  Separate  compartments,  to  be  known  as  "retaining"  rooms, 
or  other  places  for  final  inspection,  shall  be  set  apart  at  all  official  establish- 
ments, and  all  carcasses  and  parts  marked  with  a  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag  shall 
be  held  in  these  rooms  pending  final  inspection.  These  rooms  shall  be  rat-proof, 
large  enough  for  carcasses  to  hang  separately,  furnished  with  abundant  light, 
and  provided  with  sanitary  tables  and  other  necessary  apparatus;  the  floors 
shall  be  of  cement,  asphalt,  metal,  or  brick  laid  in  cement,  and  shall  have 
proper  sewer  connections.  They  shall  be  provided  with  facilities  for  locking, 
and  locks  for  this  purpose  will  be  furnished  by  the  Department.  The  keys 
to  such  locks  shall  remain  in  the  custody  of  the  inspector  or  his  assistant. 
In  establishments  where  it  is  impracticable  or  undesirable  to  have  refrigeration 
in  the  retaining  room,  rooms  may  be  constructed  in  the  cooler  for  the  recep- 
tion and  chilling  of  carcasses  not  affected  with  infectious  diseases,  but  which 
require  further  inspection. 

SECTION  2.  Retained  carcasses  shall  be  subjected  to  a  final  inspection, 
and  immediately  after  this  is  completed  those  found  to  be  wholesome  and 
fit  for  human  food  shall  be  released  by  the  veterinary  inspector  conducting 
the  inspection,  who  shall  remove  the  "U.  S.  Retained"  tags,  and  the  carcasses 


TANK  ROOMS,   TANKS,  AND  TANKING  121 

shall  be  removed  from  the  retaining  room  and  marked  "  Inspected  and  Passed," 
as  provided  in  Regulation  17,  Section  5. 

SECTION  3.  The  floors  and  walls  of  all  retaining  rooms  shall  be  washed  with 
hot  water  and  disinfected  after  diseased  animals  are  removed  and  before  any 
" retained"  carcasses  are  again  placed  therein. 


REGULATION  15.     "CONDEMNED  ROOMS 

SECTION  1.  In  each  establishment  at  which  condemned  carcasses  or  meat- 
food  products  are  held  until  the  day  following  their  condemnation  there  shall 
be  provided  a  room  entirely  separate  from  all  other  rooms  in  the  establishment. 
This  room  shall  be  secure,  rat-proof,  and  shall  be  provided  with  a  lock,  the  key 
of  which  shall  remain  in  the  custody  of  a  Department  employee.  This  room 
shall  be  known  as  the  "  condemned  room,"  and  shall  be  kept  locked  at  all  times 
except  when  condemned  meat  or  meat-food  products  are  being  taken  into  or 
from  the  said  room  under  the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee.  The 
condemned  room  shall  be  kept  clean. 

SECTION  2.  Carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses  found  on  final  inspection  to  be 
unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food  shall 
be  marked  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned,"  as  provided  in  Regulation  17, 
Section  4,  and  shall  be  immediately  removed  from  the  retaining  room  to  the 
"condemned  room,"  if  such  condemned  room  is  provided.  In  case  no  con- 
demned room  is  provided  they  shall  be  locked  in  the  retaining  room  and  shall 
be  tanked  at  or  before  the  close  of  the  day  on  which  they  are  condemned. 

SECTION  3.  Condemned  carcasses  shall  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate,  but 
shall  be  removed  from  the  "  condemned  room,"  denatured  as  provided  in  Regu- 
lation 16,  Section  3,  or  tanked  within  a  reasonable  time  after  condemnation. 

SECTION  4.  A  truck  or  trucks  cf  sufficient  capacity,  plainly  marked,  and 
which  can  be  locked  or  sealed,  shall,  when  required  by  the  inspector  in  charge, 
be  provided  for  handling  condemned  meat. 


REGULATION  16.     TANK  ROOMS,  TANKS,  AND  TANKING 

SECTION  1.  All  tanks  and  equipment  used  for  rendering  and  preparing 
edible  products  shall  be  in  compartments  separate  from  those  used  for  rendering 
inedible  products,  and  there  shall  be  no  connection  by  means  of  pipes  or  other- 
wise between  the  tanks  or  departments  containing  inedible  products  and  those 
containing  edible  products.  This  provision  must  be  complied  with  on  or  before 
October  1,  1908. 

SECTION  2.  Paragraph  1. — All  condemned  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  and 
meat-food  products  shall  be  tanked  as  follows : 

Paragraph  2.  After  the  lower  opening  and  the  draw-off  valves  of  the  tank 
have  been  securely  sealed  by  an  employee  of  the  Department  and  the  condemned 
carcasses,  parts,  and  meat-food  products  are  placed  therein  in  his  presence, 
the  upper  opening  shall  be  likewise  securely  sealed  by  such  employee,  whose 
duty  it  shall  be  then  to  see  that  a  sufficient  force  of  steam  (not  less  than  forty 
pounds,  producing  a  temperature  of  288°  F.)  is  turned  into  the  tanks  and 
maintained  a  sufficient  time  (not  less  than  six  hours)  effectually  to  render  the 
contents  unfit  for  any  edible  product.  Wire  and  lead  seals  are  provided  by 
the  Department  for  sealing  tanks.  Proprietors  of  establishments  are  required 
to  equip  all  tanks  used  for  condemned  products  so  that  they  may  be  securely 
sealed  in  the  manner  above  specified. 

Paragraph  3.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  coloring  matter  or  other  substance 
to  be  designated  by  the  Department  shall  be  used  in  connection  with  the 
rendering  of  all  condemned  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  or  meat-food 
products  to  destroy  them  effectually  for  food  purposes. 


122  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

Paragraph  4.  The  seals  of  tanks  containing  condemned  meat  or  the  tankage 
thereof  shall  be  broken  only  by  an  employee  of  the  Department,  and  such 
employee  shall  supervise  the  drawing  off  of  the  contents  of  such  tanks  and  the 
marking  of  the  tallow  and  grease  as  inedible. 

Paragraph  5.  If  an  official  establishment  fails  to  permit  the  treatment 
and  tanking  of  condemned  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  meat,  or  meat-food 
products  as  required  by  these  regulations,  the  inspector  in  charge  shall  report 
that  fact  to  the  Department,  in  order  that  inspection  may  be  withdrawn  from 
such  establishment. 

SECTION  3.  Any  meat  or  meat-food  products  condemned  at  establishments 
which  have  no  facilities  for  tanking  shall  be  freely  slashed  with  a  knife  and  then 
denatured  with  crude  carbolic  acid  or  other  prescribed  agent,  and  then  removed 
to  an  establishment  indicated  by  the  inspector  in  charge  and  there  tanked  and 
rendered  under  the  supervision  of  an  employee  of  the  Department;  or  such 
meat  or  meat-food  products  may  be  destroyed  by  incineration  under  the  super- 
vision of  an  employee  of  the  Department. 

REGULATION  17.  TAGS,  BRANDS,  STAMPS 

SECTION  1.  To  each  animal  inspected  under  Regulation  11,  which  shows 
symptoms  or  is  suspected  of  being  affected  with  any  disease  or  condition  which 
under  these  regulations  may  cause  its  condemnation  in  whole  or  in  part  on 
postmortem  inspection  there  shall  be  affixed  by  a  Department  employee  at 
the  time  of  inspection  a  numbered  metal  tag  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Suspect/' 
which  shall  remain  upon  the  animal  until  final  postmortem  inspection,  when 
the  carcass  shall  be  marked  according  to  the  conditions  found,  and  disposed 
of  as  elsewhere  provided  in  these  regulations. 

SECTION  2.  To  the  ear  of  each  animal  which  is  found  in  a  d}dng  condition 
or  dead  on  the  premises  of  an  establishment  there  shall  be  affixed  by  a  Depart- 
ment employee  a  numbered  tag  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Condemned."  The 
ear  bearing  the  tag  shall  not  be  removed  from  the  carcass.  The  number  of 
this  tag  shall  be  reported  to  the  inspector  in  charge  by  the  employee  who  affixes 
it.  This  tag  shall  accompany  the  condemned  carcass  into  the  tank,  and  the 
Department  employee  who  is  supervising  the  tanking  shall  make  a  report  of 
the  number  to  the  inspector  in  charge. 

SECTION  3.  Upon  each  carcass,  or  part  or  detached  organ  thereof,  inspected 
under  Regulation  12,  in  which  any  lesion  of  disease  or  other  condition  is  found 
that  might  render  the  meat  or  any  organ  unfit  for  food  purposes,  and  which 
for  that  reason  would  require  a  subsequent  inspection,  there  shall  be  placed 
by  a  Department  employee  at  the  time  of  inspection  a  tag,  numbered  in  dupli- 
cate, bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Retained,"  and  such  other  marks  of  identification 
shall  be  used  as  shall  be  approved  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 
The  inspector  who  attaches  this  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag  shall  detach  the  numbered 
stub  thereof  and  forward  it  with  his  report  to  the  inspector  in  charge.  The 
other  portion  shall  accompany  the  carcass  to  the  retaining  room. 

SECTION  4.  Each  carcass,  or  part  or  detached  organ  thereof,  which  is  found 
on  final  inspection  to  be  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise 
unfit  for  human  food  shall  be  marked  conspicuously  by  a  Department  employee 
at  the  time  of  inspection  with  the  words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned." 
The  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag  shall  accompany  the  carcass  into  the  tank,  and  the 
number  thereof  shall  be  reported  by  the  employee  who  supervises  the  tanking. 
If,  however,  upon  final  inspection  the  carcass  or  part  thereof  is  passed,  the 
"U.  S.  Retained"  tag  shall  be  removed  and  returned  to  the  inspector  in  charge. 
A  record  of  the  tag  showing  the  serial  number,  the  final  disposal  of  the  carcass 
or  part  to  which  it  was  affixed,  the  date,  and  the  name  of  the  inspector  shall 
be  forwarded  with  the  regular  reports  to  the  inspector  in  charge. 

SECTION  5.  Upon  all  passed  carcasses  slaughtered  under  inspection  there 
shall  be  placed  by  an  employee  of  the  Department,  or  by  an  employee  of  the 


TAGS,  BRANDS,  STAMPS  123 

establishment  under  the  supervision  of  an  employee  of  the  Department,  meat- 
inspection  marks  bearing  the  words  "Inspected  and  Passed,"  or  an  authorized 
abbreviation  thereof,  and  such  other  matter  as  may  be  required  by  the  Depart- 
ment. The  number  of  marks,  their  location  on  the  carcass,  and  the  time  they 
shall  be  affixed  shall  be  determined  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry. 

SECTION  6.  Paragraph  1.  Each  passed  primal  part  or  the  true  container 
thereof  must  be  marked  under  the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee, 
with  the  words  "  Inspected  and  Passed,"  or  an  authorized  abbreviation  thereof, 
and  the  official  establishment  number,  except  as  provided  in  Paragraphs  2 
and  3  of  this  section  and  in  Section  12  of  Regulation  25. 

Paragraph  2.  When  primal  parts  are  shipped  from  one  official  establish- 
ment to  another  for  further  processing,  it  is  not  obligatory  that  the  inspection 
legend  appear  on  such  primal  parts,  but  the  container  thereof  in  the  case  of 
a  package  shall  be  marked  as  specified  in  Section  9,  of  this  regulation,  and 
in  the  case  of  a  car  shall  be  sealed;  in  such  cases  the  primal  parts,  after  proces- 
sing, shall  show  plainly  the  inspected  legend  and  the  number  of  the  official 
establishment  at  which  the  processing  was  completed. 

Paragraph  3.  Passed  primal  parts  of  pork  intended  for  export  need  not  be 
marked  with  the  authorized  marks  of  inspection,  but  all  outside  containers  shall 
bear  the  meat-inspection  stamp. 

SECTION  7.  The  inspection  legend  or  an  authorized  abbreviation  thereof 
may  be  affixed,  under  the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee,  to  hams, 
bacon,  and  similar  primal  parts  with  a  hot  branding  iron,  and  when  so  affixed 
will  be  recognized  as  the  official  mark  of  inspection.  When  hot  branding  irons 
are  used  to  affix  trade  brands  or  descriptions,  such  brand  or  description  must 
be  distinct  and  apart  from  the  inspection  legend. 

SECTION  8.  Upon  all  meat-food  products  which  are  suspected  on  reinspec- 
tion  of  being  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human 
food,  or  upon  the  containers  thereof,  there  shall  be  placed  by  a  Department 
employee  at  the  time  of  reinspection  the  "U.  S.  Retained"  tags  hereinbefore 
described.  The  employee  who  affixes  the  tag  shall  send  the  numbered  stub 
with  his  report  to  the  inspector  in  charge.  These  tags  shall  accompany  the 
said  meats  or  meat-food  products  to  the  retaining  room  or  other  special  place 
for  final  inspection.  When  the  final  inspection  is  made,  if  the  meat  or  meat- 
food  product  be  condemned,  the  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag  shall  be  stamped  "U. 
S.  Inspected  and  Condemned,"  and  shall  accompany  the  condemned  meat 
or  meat-food  product  to  the  tank,  and  the  inspector  shall  report  his  action 
to  the  inspector  in  charge.  If,  however,  upon  final  inspection  the  meat  or 
meat-food  product  is  passed  for  food,  the  inspector  shall  stamp  the  retained 
tag  "  Inspected  and  Passed"  and  return  the  tag  with  his  report  to  the  inspector 
in  charge. 

SECTION  9.  When  meat  products  for  domestic  trade  have  been  inspected 
and  passed,  the  outside  containers  of  such  meat  shall  bear  (in  lieu  of  meat- 
inspection  stamp),  a  domestic  meat  label  which  has  been  submitted  to  and 
approved  by  the  Department,  showing  the  official  establishment  number  and 
the  following  legend:  "The  meat  contained  herein  has  been  inspected  and 
passed  under  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  June  30,  1906."  The  firm  name  may 
also  appear  on  the  label  if  desired.  The  dimensions  of  the  label  shall  be  not 
less  than  4  inches  by  2f  inches.  Outside  containers  if  bearing  approved  trade 
labels  are  not  required  to  be  provided  with  the  label  above  described.  Domestic 
meat  labels  shall  be  affixed  to  packages  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  Regula- 
tion 24,  for  affixing  labels  to  export  packages. 

SECTION  10.  Each  outside  container  (except  cloth  wrappings)  of  export 
meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  marked  with  a  meat-inspection  stamp. 
The  cloth  wrappings  of  inspected  and  passed  meat  which  is  so  marked  shall 
be  marked  with  an  authorized  mark  of  inspection. 

SECTION  11.  Upon  each  container  of  meat  or  meat-food  products,  such  as 
ham,  bacon,  etc.,  prepared  for  export  with  preservatives  under  Regulation 


124  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

22,  Section  3,  Paragraph  1,  there  shall  be  placed,  under  the  personal  super- 
vision of  a  Department  employee,  a  special  stamp  for  marking  such  meats, 
known  as  the  "  Preservative'7  stamp.  All  outside  containers  of  such  meat  or 
meat-food  products  shall  bear  the  "Preservative"  stamp. 


REGULATION  18.     TRADE  LABELS 

SECTION  1.  Upon  each  can,  pot,  tin,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle,  or  cover- 
ing containing  any  meat  or  meat-food  product,  which  meat  or  meat-food 
product  does  not  bear  the  marks  "  Inspected  and  Passed,"  there  shall  be  securely 
affixed,  under  the  supervision  of  a  Department  employee,  a  trade  label  before 
such  meat  or  meat-food  product  leaves  an  official  establishment.  This  trade 
label  shall  contain,  in  plain  letters  and  figures  of  uniform  size,  the  words  "U. 
S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  the  number  of  the  official  establishment  at  which 
the  meat  or  meat-food  product  is  last  processed,  and  the  true  name  of  the  meat 
or  meat-food  product  contained  in  such  package.  The  words  "under  the  act 
of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,"  may  be  placed  upon  the  label  after  the  words 
"U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed."  An  inspector  shall  not  allow  trade  labels  to 
be  affixed  until  he  is  satisfied  that  the  contents  of  the  package  are  sound,  health- 
ful, wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  in  accordance  with  the  statements  on 
the  label. 

SECTION  2.  Duplicate  copies  of  each  trade  label  in  the  form  of  sketches  or 
proofs  shall  first  be  submitted  to  the  department,  and  no  trade  label  shall  be 
used  until  a  sketch  or  proof  thereof  has  been  approved.  After  trade  labels  are 
printed  from  approved  proofs  or  sketches  they  shall  be  forwarded  in  triplicate 
to  the  Department  for  approval  and  filing. 

SECTION  3.  No  trade  label  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed," 
or  any  abbreviation  or  simulation  thereof,  shall  be  used  on  meat  or  meat- 
food  products  which  have  not  been  inspected  and  passed  under  these  regula- 
tions, and  no  trade  label  bearing  the  inspection  legend,  or  any  abbreviation 
or  simulation  thereof,  shall  be  placed  upon  meat  or  meat-food  products  except 
under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector. 

SECTION  4.  Tin  containers,  embossed  or  lithographed  with  the  label  as 
prescribed  in  Section  1,  will  be  considered  as  bearing  trade  labels.  On  and 
after  October  1,  1908,  all  sealed  tin  containers  must  have  the  number  of  the 
official  establishment  where  packed  embossed,  lithographed,  or  printed  thereon. 

SECTION  5.  The  essential  features  of  a  trade  label  are  as  follows,  and  shall 
appear  upon  each  label: 

The  true  name  of  the  product. 

The  inspection  legend. 

The  establishment  number. 

SECTION  6.  The  inspection  legend  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  or  an 
authorized  abbreviation  thereof,  and  the  official  establishment  number  in 
plain  characters  of  uniform  size,  which  shall  be  in  proper  proportion  to  the 
general  lettering  of  the  label,  must  be  separately  and  prominently  embodied 
in  all  trade  labels. 

SECTION  7.  In  the  case  of  meat  contained  in  cartons,  or  in  wrappers  of 
paper,  cloth,  or  other  similar  substance,  the  inspection  legend  and  the  official 
establishment  number  may  be  embodied  in  a  sticker  or  seal  of  proportionate 
size  prominently  displayed  with  the  trade  label  but  not  necessarily  a  part 
of  the  trade  label,  such  stickers  or  seals  to  be  approved  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture.  It  is  not  permissible  to  affix  to  meat  or  meat-food  products 
a  detachable  device  of  any  kind  which  bears  the  inspection  legend. 

SECTION  8.  While  labels  to  be  affixed  for  foreign  shipment  may  be  printed 
in  a  foreign  language,  the  same  rules  shall  apply  with  reference  to  false  labelling 
and  the  naming  of  ingredients  as  shall  apply  to  goods  prepared  for  domestic 
use.  The  inspection  legend  and  the  official  establishment  number  must  in 
all  cases  appear  in  English;  but  if  desired  they  may  in  addition,  literally 


REINSPECTION  125 

translated,  appear  in  the  language  of  the  country  to  which  the  package  is 
destined. 

SECTION  9.  Paragraph  1.  When  an  article  is  prepared  by  an  official  estab- 
lishment for  another  firm  or  individual,  if  the  name  of  the  said  firm  or  individual 
is  to  appear  upon  the  label  the  statement  must  be  made  that  the  article  was 
"prepared  for"  or  " manufactured  for,"  tne  firm  or  individual.  Names  of  sub- 
sidiary companies  which  have  legal  entity  may  be  used  without  the  prefix 
" prepared  for,"  or  "manufactured  for." 

Paragraph  2.  When  a  firm  or  individual  not  operating  under  Federal  inspec- 
tion desires  to  reship  inspected  and  passed  meat  that  has  been  processed  only 
under  Government  inspection  and  is  eligible  under  these  regulations  for  inter- 
state shipment  he  may  affix  to  the  package  the  following  statement:  "The 
meat  contained  herein  has  been  inspected  and  passed  at  an  establishment  where 
Federal  inspection  is  maintained." 

SECTION  10.  No  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  sold  or  offered  for  sale 
by  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  under  any  false  or  deceptive  name;  but 
the  established  trade  name  or  names  which  are  usual  to  such  products,  which 
are  not  false  and  deceptive  and  which  shall  be  approved  by  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  are  permitted. 

SECTION  11.  No  picture,  design,  or  device  which  gives  any  false  indication 
of  origin  or  quality  shall  be  used  upon  any  label.  The  law  prohibits  any  state- 
ment, design,  or  device  false  in  any  particular  regarding  the  virtues  or  properties 
of  the  materials  contained  in  the  package. 

SECTION  12.  A  meat-food  product  when  composed  of  more  than  one  ingre- 
dient shall  not  bear  a  trade  label  with  a  name  stating  or  purporting  to  show 
that  the  said  meat  food  product  is  a  substance  which  is  not  the  principal 
ingredient  contained  therein,  even  though  such  name  be  an  established  trade 
name. 

SECTION  13.  A  meat-food  product  that  contains  a  substance  or  substances, 
including  water,  added  for  the  purpose  of  adulteration  and  which  lessens  its 
food  value  shall  bear  a  label  stating  that  such  substance  or  substances  have 
been  added. 

SECTION  14.  When  any  weight  is  given  upon  the  true  container  it  must  be 
the  correct  weight,  and  it  must  be  stated  whether  this  weight  is  the  net  weight 
or  the  gross  weight. 

REGULATION  19.     REINSPECTION 

SECTION  1.  Immediately  before  shipment  and  at  such  other  times  as  may 
be  deemed  necessary,  all  carcasses  or  parts  thereof,  whether  fresh  or  cured, 
that  have  been  previously  inspected  and  passed,  shall  be  reinspected  by  the 
inspector  in  charge  or  his  assistants,  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  prescribed  by 
the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  and  if  upon  any  such  reinspection 
any  carcass  or  part  thereof  is  found  to  have  become  unsound,  unhealthful, 
unwholesome,  or  in  any  way  unfit  for  human  food,  the  original  mark,  stamp, 
tag,  or  label  shall  be  destroyed  or  defaced,  and  the  carcass  or  part  shall  be 
condemned. 

SECTION  2.  Except  as  provided  in  Regulation  20,  only  carcasses  and  parts 
thereof,  meat,  or  meat-food  products  which  have  not  been  processed  except 
under  Government  supervision,  and  which  can  by  marks,  seals,  brands,  or 
labels  be  identified  as  having  been  previously  inspected  and  passed  by  a 
department  employee,  shall  be  taken  into  or  allowed  to  enter  an  official 
establishment.  All  such  carcasses,  parts,  meat,  or  meat-food  products  which 
are  brought  into  one  official  establishment  from  another,  or  which  are  returned 
to  the  establishment  from  which  they  issued,  shall  be  identified  and  reinspected 
at  the  time  of  receipt,  and  shall  be  subject  to  further  reinspection  in  such  manner 
and  at  such  times  as  may  be  deemed  necessary.  If  upon  any  such  reinspection 
any  carcass  or  part  thereof,  or  meat  or  meat-food  product  is  'found  to  have 


126  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

become  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  in  any  way  unfit  for  human  food, 
the  original  mark,  stamp,  tag,  or  label  shall  be  defaced  or  destroyed,  and  the 
carcass,  part,  meat,  or  meat-food  product  shall  be  condemned, 

SECTION  3.  Special  docks  and  receiving  rooms  shall  be  designated  by  the 
establishment  for  the  receipt  and  inspection  of  all  meat  or  meat-food  products, 
and  no  meat  or  meat-food  products  'shall  be  allowed  to  enter  the  establish- 
ment except  in  the  presence  of  a  Department  employee. 

SECTION  4.  Unrendered  fats  from  carcasses  which  have  been  inspected 
and  passed  may  be  returned  and  received  into  official  establishments,  provided 
the  fats  have  been  handled  in  a  sanitary  manner  after  leaving  the  establish- 
ment, and  provided  further  that  upon  inspection  the  fats  are  found  to  be  clean, 
sweet,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food.  However,  the  return  of  such  fats 
to  official  establishments  and  the  manner  in  which  they  shall  be  handled  from 
the  time  they  leave  such  establishments  until  their  return  thereto  shall  be 
governed  by  such  specific  instructions  as  may  be  issued  from  time  to  time  by 
the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

SECTION  5.  Inedible  fats  may  be  received  only  into  the  tank  room  provided 
for  inedible  products,  and  when  so  received  they  shall  not  enter  any  compart- 
ment used  for  edible  products. 

SECTION  6.  Paragraph  1.  In  order  to  provide  for  the  interstate  transpor- 
tation from  public  markets  and  other  places  of  portions  of  "Inspected  and 
Passed"  carcasses,  parts,  and  meat-food  products  which,  when  cut  or  otherwise 
removed  from  a  marked  carcass,  part,  or  container,  do  not  show  the  inspection 
mark  and  cannot  therefore  be  identified  as  having  been  "inspected  and 
passed,"  market  inspection  may  be  furnished.  Each  city  in  which  market 
inspection  is  established  will  be  assigned  a  number,  and  all  products  for- 
warded under  such  inspection  shall  bear  the  inspection  legend  and  the  official 
number  assigned  to  the  city. 

Paragraph  2.  Unmarked  portions  which  are  cut  from  the  marked  carcass 
or  part,  or  are  removed  from  the  marked  container  for  interstate  transportation, 
shall  be  marked  by  a  Department  employee.  Wherever  practicable  the  brand 
shall  be  applied  to  the  meat  itself;  where  this  cannot  be  done  the  true  container 
of  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  shall  be  marked  as  required  by  the  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

Paragraph  3.  All  market  stalls  or  other  places  which  are  given  market 
inspection  shall  be  maintained  in  a  sanitary  condition  and  shall  also  conform 
to  the  requirements  of  the  Department  governing  the  use  of  the  drugs,  chemicals , 
dyes,  and  preservatives. 


REGULATION  20.     CARCASSES  OF  ANIMALS  NOT  INSPECTED 

ANTEMORTEM. 

SECTION  I.1  Carcasses  of  animals  which  have  had  no  antemortem  inspec- 
tion by  inspectors  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  will  not,  except  as  here- 
inafter provided,  be  admitted  into  an  official  establishment.  The  exception 
to  the  rule  applies  only  to  carcasses  to  which  the  head  and  all  viscera,  except 
the  stomach,  bladder,  and  intestines,  are  held  by  the  natural  attachments. 
Such  carcasses,  if  offered  for  admission  into  official  establishments,  shall  be 
inspected,  and  if  found  to  be  free  from  disease  and  otherwise  sound,  healthful, 
wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food  they  shall  be  marked  "Inspected  and 
Passed"  and  admitted.  If  found  to  be  diseased,  unsound,  unhealthful,  un- 
wholesome, or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  they  shall  be  marked  "U.  S. 
Inspected  and  Condemned,"  and  the  proprietor  of  the  establishment  shall  be 
required  to  destroy  them  for  food  purposes,  as  provided  in  Regulation  16, 
Section  2. 

1  Formerly  Regulation  62,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137, 


PREPARATION  OF  MEAT  AND  MEAT-FOOD  PRODUCTS     127 


REGULATION  21.     TANK  CARS 

SECTION  1.  Tank  cars  carrying  edible  meat-food  products  into  interstate 
or  foreign  commerce  shall  be  provided  with  proper  appliances  for  sealing  and 
be  securely  sealed  with  seals  furnished  by  the  department  and  affixed  by  depart- 
ment employees. 

SECTION  2.  When  such  products  for  export  are  transferred  from  tank  cars 
to  other  containers  on  boats,  such  transfer  shall  be  under  Government  super- 
vision, and  the  said  containers  on  boats  shall  likewise  be  sealed. 


REGULATION  22.     DYES,   CHEMICALS,   AND  PRESERVATIVES 

SECTION  1.  No  meat  or  meat-food  product  shall  contain  any  substance 
which  lessens  its  wholesomeness,  nor  any  drug,  chemical,  dye,  or  preserva- 
tive, except  as  hereinafter  provided. 

SECTION  2.  Paragraph  1 .  There  may  be  added  to  meat  or  meat-food  products 
common  salt,  sugar,  wood  smoke,  vinegar,  pure  spices,  and  saltpeter.  Only 
such  coloring  matters  as  may  be  designated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as 
being  harmless  may  be  used,  and  these  only  in  such  manner  as  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  may  designate. 

Paragraph  2.  Substances  necessary  for  the  preparation,  clarification,  or 
refining  of  meat-food  products  will  be  permitted  to  be  used  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  provided  they  are  eliminated  from  the 
meat-food  products  during  the  further  process  of  manufacture. 

SECTION  3.  Paragraph  1.  In  accordance  with  the  written  direction  of  the 
foreign  purchaser  or  his  agent,  meat  or  meat-food  products  prepared  for  export 
may  contain  preservatives  of  a  kind  and  in  proportions  which  do  not  conflict 
with  the  laws  of  the  foreign  country  to  which  they  are  to  be  exported;  but  when 
such  meat  or  meat-food  products  are  prepared  for  export  under  this  regulation 
they  shall  be  prepared  in  compartments  of  the  establishment  separate  and 
apart  from  those  in  which  meat  or  meat-food  products  are  prepared  for  the 
domestic  trade,  and  such  products  shall  be  kept  separate.  Distinctive  export 
certificates  and  stamps  will  be  issued  for  meat  or  meat-food  products  of  this 
character,  but  if  the  products  are  not  exported,  under  no  circumstances  shall 
they  be  allowed  to  enter  domestic  trade. 

Paragraph  2.  The  packing  of  meat  which  is  prepared,  as  provided  in  Para- 
graph 1  of  this  section,  with  any  preservative  not  permitted  by  Paragraph  1, 
Section  2,  may  be  done  in  the  regular  packing  room,  provided  that  no  other 
meat  is  allowed  in  the  packing  room  during  the  time  of  such  packing.  After 
such  packing  is  completed  the  packing  room  shall  be  thoroughly  cleansed  of 
the  preservative  before  the  packing  of  other  meat  therein  is  resumed.  A  sepa- 
rate compartment  constructed  of  tight  partitions  or  walls  shall  be  set  apart 
for  storing  the  preservative  trays  and  other  appliances  used  in  connection  with 
the  packing.  The  department  will  furnish  a  lock  and  key  for  this  compartment, 
and  the  packing  of  all  meat  under  this  section  shall  be  conducted  under  the 
personal  supervision  of  an  employee  of  this  department. 


REGULATION  23.  PREPARATION  OF  MEAT  AND  MEAT-FOOD 

PRODUCTS 

SECTION  1.  All  processes  used  in  curing,  pickling,  rendering,  canning,  or 
otherwise  preparing  meat  or  meat-food  products  in  official  establishments 
shall  be  supervised  by  department  employees.  No  fixtures  or  appliances, 
such  as  tables,  trucks,  trays,  tanks,  vats,  machines,  implements,  cans,  or  con- 


128  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

tainers  of  any  kind  shall  be  used  unless  they  are  clean  and  sanitary.  All  steps 
in  the  process  of  manufacture  shall  be  conducted  carefully  and  with  strict 
cleanliness.  All  salt-pickling  fluids  and  other  solutions  or  substances  used 
in  curing  meat  must  be  clean. 

SECTION  2.  Canned  meat  or  meat-food  products  which  require  sterilization 
to  preserve  them  must  be  subjected  to  this  process  on  the  same  day  that  the 
cans  are  filled.  Defective  or  leaking  cans  discovered  after  the  process  of  steriliza- 
tion has  been  "completed  shall  not  be  repaired  or  repacked  (unless  such  repairing 
or  repacking  is  done  within  six  hours  of  the  time  of  original  sterilization), 
but  the  contents  of  such  cans  shall  be  removed  and  condemned. 

SECTION  3.  Potato  flour  shall  not  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  sausage, 
nor  shall  excessive  quantities  of  cereals  or  water  be  used. 

SECTION  4.  Paragraph  1.  The  manufacture  of  all  fats  into  lard,  tallow, 
oils,  and  stearin  at  official  establishments  shall  be  closely  supervised  by  em- 
ployees of  the  Department,  who  shall  see  that  all  portions  of  carcasses  rendered 
into  edible  products  are  clean  and  wholesome. 

Paragraph  2.  Heads  rendered  into  edible  products  shall  first  be  split,  cross- 
sectioned,  and  thoroughly  washed  and  cleaned. 

Paragraph  3.  When  hogs'  feet  are  used  for  lard,  the  hair,  hoofs,  and  the 
tissues  of  the  interdigital  spaces  must  be  removed. 

Paragraph  4.  All  pipes  and  similar  conveyors  used  in  conducting  edible 
fats  from  one  receptacle  or  container  to  another  shall  be  of  a  distinctly  different 
color  from  the  pipes  and  similar  conveyors  used  in  conducting  inedible  fats 
from  one  receptacle  or  container  to  another. 

Paragraph  5.  Blueprints  or  other  accurate  diagrams  showing  all  under- 
ground pipe  lines  or  other  conveyors  used  to  conduct  edible  and  inedible  prod- 
ucts at  official  establishments  and  also  those  extending  from  official  establish- 
ments to  other  establishments,  either  official  or  unofficial,  with  a  description 
giving  the  exact  location,  terminals,  and  dimensions  of  such  pipes,  or  other 
conveyors,  and  of  all  gates,  valves,  or  other  controlling  apparatus,  shall  be  filed 
with  the  Department,  and  a  copy  of  such  prints  or  diagrams  shall  be  filed  with 
the  inspector  in  charge.  The  prints  or  diagrams  should  designate  the  lines 
used  for  conveying  edible  products  and  those  used  for  conveying  inedible 
products.  If  no  such  underground  pipes  or  conveyors  are  used  for  the  purposes 
above  indicated,  a  written  statement  certifying  to  this  fact  and  duly  signed 
by  the  management  of  each  establishment  shall  be  filed  with  the  Department. 

Paragraph  6.  All  containers,  such  as  vats  and  tierces,  in  which  white  grease 
or  other  inedible  meat  products  are  placed,  shall  be  plainly  marked  "inedible" 
in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  be  readily  identified. 

Paragraph  7.  Final  containers,  such  as  tierces,  shall  be  appropriately  marked 
on  both' ends  immediately  after  filling. 

SECTION  5.  The  only  animal  casings  that  may  be  used  as  containers  in  the 
manufacture  of  sausage  under  these  regulations  are  those  from  cattle,  hogs, 
sheep,  or  goats. 

REGULATION  24.  STAMPS  FOR  EXPORT  PACKAGES. 

SECTION  1.  Paragraph  1.  Numbered  meat-inspection  stamps  shall  be 
affixed  to  packages  (except  those  in  cloth  wrappings)  containing  meat  or  meat- 
food  products  to  be  shipped  or  otherwise  transported  in  foreign  trade. 

Paragraph  2.  Stamps  shall  be  affixed  in  the  following  manner,  and  wrhen 
they  have  been  affixed  they  shall  be  covered  immediately  with  a  coating  of 
transparent  varnish  or  other  similar  substance: 

(a)  The  stamp  may  be  affixed  in  a  grooved  space  made  by  removing  a  por- 
tion of  the  wood  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the  stamp. 

(6)  The  stamp  may  be  placed  on  either  end  of  the  package,  provided  that 
the  sides  are  made  to  project  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  afford  the  neces- 
sary protection  from  abrasion. 


TRANSPORTATION  129 

SECTION  2.  Inedible-product  stamps  and  certificates  may,  upon  request,  be 
issued,  to  accompany  shipments  for  export  of  casings,  bladders,  lungs,  hoofs, 
and  other  similar  inedible  animal  products. 


REGULATION  25.     TRANSPORTATION1 

SECTION  1.  Upon  the  application  of  the  exporter  the  inspector  in  charge 
of  an  establishment  is  authorized  to  issue  certificates  for  export  shipments 
of  inspected  and  passed  meat  or  meat-food  products.  The  certificate  should 
be  issued  at  the  time  the  product  leaves  the  establishment;  if,  however,  the 
certificate  is  not  issued  at  that  time,  it  can  only  be  issued  upon  identification 
and  reinspection  of  the  product. 

SECTION  2.  These  certificates  shall  be  issued  in  serial  numbers  and  in  tripli- 
cate form.  Each  certificate  shall  show  the  names  of  the  exporter  and  the 
consignee,  the  destination,  the  numbers  of  the  stamps  attached  to  the  article 
to  be  exported,  the  shipping  marks,  the  kind  of  product,  and  the  weight. 

SECTION  3.  Only  one  certificate  shall  be  issued  for  each  consignment  unless 
otherwise  directed  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

SECTION  4.  Both  the  original  and  duplicate  certificates  shall  be  delivered 
by  the  inspector  to  the  shipper.  The  copy  of  certificate  provided  by  law  to 
be  delivered  to  the  chief  officer  of  the  vessel  shall  be  the  duplicate  copy  and 
shall  be  filed  with  the  custom  officers  at  the  time  of  filing  the  master's  manifest 
or  the  supplemental  manifest. 

SECTION  5.  No  master  of  any  steam  or  sailing  vessel  shall  receive  for  trans- 
portation or  transport  from  the  United  States  to  Great  Britain  or  Ireland, 
or  any  of  the  countries  of  continental  Europe,  or  to  Argentina  or  Mexico, 
any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
or  goats,  except  ship  stores,  unless  and  until  a  certificate  of  inspection  covering 
the  same  has  been  issued  and  delivered  as  provided  in  this  regulation.  The 
requirement  of  export  certificates  is  waived  for  meat  and  meat-food  products 
to  foreign  countries  other  than  those  hereinbefore  named. 

SECTION  6.  When  inedible  grease,  inedible  tallow,  or  inedible  stearin  derived 
from  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  is  offered  for  export,  the  collectors  of  customs, 
under  instructions  from  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  will  require 
an  affidavit  from  the  exporter  that  the  products  to  be  exported  are  inedible 
and  are  not  intended  for  food  purposes. 

SECTION  7.2  No  person,  firm,  or  corporation  shall  receive  for  transportation 
or  transport  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  another 
State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or 
meat-food  product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  unless  and  until  a  certificate 
is  made  and  furnished  in  one  of  the  forms  prescribed  in  Sections  11,  12,  13, 
and  14  of  this  regulation,  showing  that  such  meat  or  meat-food  product  has  been 
either  inspected  and  passed  or  exempted  from  inspection,  according  to  the 
act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906:  Provided,  That  printed  certificates  in  the 
forms  formerly  required  and  now  on  hand  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  It 
is  necessary,  as  old  stocks  of  printed  certificates  are  exhausted,  that  new  ones 
be  printed  in  the  new  forms. 

SECTION  8.3  When  any  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  products  covered 
by  these  regulations  is  offered  to  any  common  carrier  for  carriage  within  the 
United  States  as  a  part  of  a  foreign  movement,  the  same  certificate  shall  be 
required  as  if  the  shipment  were  destined  to  a  point  within  the  United  States. 

1  The   transportation   of  meat   or  meat-food   product  from  one   point  in  a  State  or  Territory  to 
another  point  in  the   same   State  or  Territory,  when  in  course  of   shipment  the  meat  or  meat-food 
product  is  taken  through  another  State  or  Territory,  is  interstate  commerce. 

2  Formerly  Regulation  52,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 
'Formerly  Regulation  52,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 

9 


130  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

SECTION  9.1  Paragraph  1.  Shipments  of  Inspected  and  Passed  meat  or 
meat-food  products  that  are  so  marked  may  be  diverted  from  the  original 
destination  without  a  reinspection  of  the  product;  if  a  new  certificate  showing 
the  changed  destination  be  given  to  the  carrier  by  the  owner  or  shipper,  who 
may  or  may  not  be  the  original  shipper;  or  in  case  of  a  wreck  or  other  extra- 
ordinary emergency  the  carrier  may  divert  such  shipments  from  the  original 
destination  without  a  new  shipper's  certificate. 

Paragraph  2.  The  Government  seals  on  a  car  containing  "  Inspected  and 
Passed"  meat  or  meat-food  products  may  be  broken  by  the  carrier  in  case 
of  wreck  or  other  extraordinary  emergency,  and  if  necessary  the  product  may 
be  reloaded  into  another  car  or  the  shipment  may  be  diverted  from  the  original 
destination  without  another  shipper's  certificate;  but  in  all  such  cases  the 
carrier  shall  immediately  report  the  transaction  by  telegraph  to  the  Chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  Such  report  shall  include 
the  information  indicated  below: 

(a)  Nature  of  the  emergency. 

(6)  Place  where  seals  were  broken. 

(c)  Original  points  of  shipment  and  destination. 

(d)  Number  and  initials  of  the  original  car. 

(e)  Number  and  initials  of  the  car  into  which  the  product  is  reloaded. 
(/)  New  destination  of  the  shipment. 

(g)  Kind  and  amount  of  product. 

SECTION  10.  Reshipments  of  Inspected  meat  or  meat-food  products  which 
are  sound  and  wholesome  at  the  time  of  reshipment  may  be  made  without 
reinspection  when  the  meat  or  meat-food  products,  or  the  containers  thereof, 
are  marked  "  Inspected  and  Passed"  and  the  meat  or  meat-food  products  have 
not  been  processed  since  they  were  originally  shipped  under  Section  1 1  of  this 
regulation.  Also  jobbers,  wholesalers,  or  others  who  do  no  processing,  and  who 
receive  "Inspected  and  Passed"  meat  or  meat-food  products,  may  break  bulk, 
repack,  and  reship  the  same  into  interstate  commerce  under  Section  11  of  this 
regulation  if  each  piece  of  meat  or  meat-food  product  in  the  unmarked  pack- 
age bears  the  original  authorized  mark  of  Government  inspection.  Inspection 
shall  be  maintained  at  the  establishment  of  all  such  jobbers,  wholesalers,  or 
others  who  do  any  processing. 

SECTION  II.2  When  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  of 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  which  has  been  "Inspected  and  Passed"  and 
so  marked  under  these  regulations  is  offered  to  any  common  carrier  for 
transportation  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to 
another  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  for  interstate  shipment 
only,  or  for  interstate  shipment  as  part  of  a  foreign  movement,  or  for  foreign 
shipment,  the  person,  firm,  or  corporation  offering  such  carcass,  part  of  carcass, 
or  meat-food  product  shall  make  a  certificate  in  the  following  form  and  deliver 
the  same  to  the  common  carrier,  except  as  provided  in  Section  12  of  this 
regulation: 

Date 191 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Shipper 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  meat  or  meat-food  products  described  herein, 
which  are  offered  for  shipment  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  have  been 
inspected  and  passed  according  to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  are  so 


1  Formerly  Meat  Inspection  Ruling,  1  A. 

*  Formerly  Regulation  53,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


TRANSPORTATION  131 

marked,  and  at  this  date  are  sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human 
food. 

Kind  of  product.  Amount  and  weight. 


(Signature  of  shipper.) 

(Address  of   shipper.) 


This  certificate  may  be  stamped  upon  or  incorporated  in  any  form  which 
is  regularly  or  ordinarily  used  in  the  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  products. 

SECTION  12.1  Paragraph  1.  An  official  establishment  may  ship  from  the 
said  establishment  to  any  other  official  establishment  any  meat  or  meat-food 
product  which  has  been  inspected  and  passed  under  these  regulations  without 
marking  the  same  "  Inspected  and  Passed"  if  such  shipment  be  placed  in  a 
railroad  car  which  is  sealed  by  an  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
and  provided  that  not  less  than  25  per  cent,  of  the  contents  of  each  car  con- 
sists of  meat  or  meat-food  products  not  marked  "  Inspected  and  Passed." 

Paragraph  2.  Wagons  so  equipped  that  they  can  be  securely  sealed  by  a 
department  employee  may  be  considered  as  true  containers. 

Paragraph  3.  When  shipments  are  made  under  Paragraph  1  of  this  section 
the  shipper  shall  make  for  each  car  and  deliver  to  the  common  carrier  a  certifi- 
cate in  duplicate  in  the  following  form: 

Date 191 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Establishment  number  of  consignor    

Point  of  shipment 

Establishment  number  of  consignee    

Destination   

Car  number  and  initials    . 


I  hereby  certify  that  the  following  described  meat  or  meat-food  products 
have  been  inspected  and  passed  according  to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906. 
They  are  not  marked  " Inspected  and  Passed,"  but  have  been  placed  in  the 
above  car  under  the  supervision  of  an  employee  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 

Industry  which  was  sealed  by  him  with  Government  seals  Nos 

and 

Kind  of  product.  Amount  and  weight. 


(Signature  of   shipper.) 

(Address  of   shipper.) 


The  duplicate  certificate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  initial  carrier 
to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  Attention 
is  directed  to  the  law  which  provides  a  penalty  of  fine  and  imprisonment  for 
any  unauthorized  person  who  breaks  a  seal  on  such  cars. 

When  shipments  are  made  under  this  section  the  inspector  in  cfiarge  at 
point  of  origin  shall  duly  notify  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
and  the  inspector  in  charge  at  point  of  destination . 

1  Formerly  Regulation  54,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


132  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

SECTION  13. l  When  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  of 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  which  has  not  been  inspected  under  these  regula- 
tions is  offered  for  shipment  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of 
Columbia  to  another  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  by  any 
retail  butcher  or  retail  dealer  who  holds  a  certificate  of  exemption  issued  by 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  the  common  carrier  shall  require  a  certificate  to 
be  made  in  duplicate  in  the  following  form  by  said  retail  butcher  or  retail 
dealer,  which  certificate  shall  in  all  cases  show  the  exemption  number 
designated  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  for  said  retail  butcher  or  retail 
dealer. 

Date 191 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Shipper 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee 

Destination   

Number  of  exemption  certificate 

I  hereby  certify  that  I  am  a  retail  butcher  or  a  retail  dealer  in  meat  or  meat- 
food  products;  that  the  following-described  meat  or  meat-food  products  are 
offered  for  shipment  in  interstate  commerce  to  a  customer,  as  exempted  from 
inspection  according  to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  under  certificate 
issued  to  me  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  that  at  this 
date  they  are  sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  and  con- 
tain no  preservative  or  coloring  matter  or  other  substance  prohibited  by  the 
regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  governing  meat  inspection. 

Kind  of  product.  Amount  and  weight. 


(Signature  of  shipper.) 

(Address  of   shipper.) 


The  duplicate  certificate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  initial  carrier 
to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.  This 
certificate  shall  be  separate  and  apart  from  any  waybill,  bill  of  lading,  or  other 
form  ordinarily  used  in  the  shipment  of  meat. 

SECTION  14.2  When  any  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  have  been  slaughtered 
by  any  farmer  on  the  farm,  and  the  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  or  meat-food 
products  thereof  are  offered  to  any  common  carrier  for  transportation  from  one 
State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  into  another  State  or  Territory 
or  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  common  carrier  may  so  transport  such  car- 
casses, parts  of  carcasses,  or  meat-food  products  as  long  as  the  same  may  be 
identified  as  of  animals  slaughtered  by  any  farmer  on  the  farm.  The  common 
carrier  shall  require  a  certificate  in  duplicate  in  the  following  form: 

Date 191 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Shipper 

Consignee 

Point  of  shipment 

Destination  

1  Formerly  Regulation  55,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 

2  Formerly  Regulation  56,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


TRANSPORTATION  133 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  following  described  uninspected  meat  or  meat- 
food  products  are  from  animals  slaughtered  by  a  farmer  on  the  farm,  and  are 
offered  for  transportation  in  interstate  commerce  as  exempted  from  inspection 
according  to  act  of  Congress  of  June  30,  1906,  and  that  at  this  date  they  are 
sound,  healthful,  wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food,  and  contain  no  preserva- 
tive or  coloring  matter  or  other  substance  prohibited  by  the  regulations  of  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  governing  meat  inspection. 

Kind  of  product.  Amount  and  weight. 


(Signature  of  shipper.) 

(Address  of  shipper.) 

The  duplicate  certificate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  initial  carrier 
to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

SECTION  15. 1  All  original  certificates  delivered  to  the  common  carrier,  as 
required  by  this  regulation,  shall  be  filed  and  retained  for  one  year  by  the 
initial  carrier,  in  order  that  they  may  be  readily  checked  by  this  department 
in  such  manner  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  from  time  to  time  prescribe.2 

SECTION  16.3  All  waybills,  transfer  bills,  running  slips,  or  conductor's  cards 
accompanying  an  interstate  or  foreign  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  product 
must  have  embodied  in,  stamped  upon,  or  attached  to  it  a  signed  statement 
which  shall  be  evidence  to  connecting  carriers  that  the  proper  shipper's  certifi- 
cate as  required  by  Sections  11,  12,  13,  and  14  of  this  regulation  is  on  file  with 
the  initial  carrier,  and  no  connecting  carrier  shall  receive  for  transportation  or 
transport  any  interstate  or  foreign  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  product 
unless  the  waybill,  transfer  bill,  running  slip,  or  conductor's  card  accompany- 
ing the  same  includes  the  aforesaid  signed  statement  in  one  of  the  following 
forms: 

When  shipment  is  made  under  Section  11  or  12: 

(Name  of  transportation  company.) 

United  States  inspected  and  passed  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate 
on  file  with  initial  carrier. 

(Signed)          Agent. 

W^hen  shipment  is  made  under  Section  13  or  14: 

(Name  of  transportation  company.) 

Exempted  from  inspection  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate  on  file  with 
initial  carrier. 

(Signed)          Agent. 

SECTION  17. 4  Paragraph  1.  When  any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat- 
food  product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  loaded  on  a  truck,  wagon,  cart,  or 
other  vehicle,  or  otherwise  prepared  for  shipment,  is  offered  for  transportation 
or  transported  by  ferry,  such  ferry  being  the  initial  carrier  from  one  State, 

1  Formerly  Regulation  57,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 

2  Stocks  of  printed  certificates  now  on  hand  may  be  used,  but  as  new  supplies  are  printed  they 
should  conform  to  the  forms  prescribed. 

3  Formerly  Regulation  58,  B.  A.  1.  Order  137. 

4  Formerly  Regulation  65,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


134  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

Territor}^  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  another  State,  Territory,  or  the 
District  of  Columbia,  the  person,  firm,  or  corporation  offering  such  carcass, 
part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  shall,  except  as  hereinafter  provided  by 
Paragraph  5,  make  a  certificate  in  one  of  the  forms  hereinafter  indicated  and 
deliver  the  certificate  to  said  common  carrier;  and  no  person,  firm,  or  corpora- 
tion operating  a  ferry  line  as  aforesaid  shall  receive  for  transportation  or  trans- 
port any  carcass,  part  of  carcass,  or  meat-food  product  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
or  goats  loaded  on  a  truck,  wagon,  cart,  or  other  vehicle,  or  in  any  other  manner 
prepared  for  transportation,  unless  a  certificate  in  one  of  the  forms  referred 
to  is  properly  filled  out  and  delivered  by  the  shipper  as  herein  required. 

Paragraph  2.  When  the  shipment  consists  of  "  inspected  and  passed"  meat 
or  meat-food  products,  the  form  of  certificate  shown  in  Section  14  of  this 
regulation  shall  be  used. 

Paragraph  3.  When  the  shipment  is  made  under  exemption  and  consists 
of  meat  or  meat-food  product  which  has  not  been  "  inspected  and  passed/'  the 
form  of  certificate  shown  in  Section  13  of  this  regulation  shall  be  used,  and 
a  duplicate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by  the  ferry  company  to  the  Chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Paragraph  4.  When  the  shipment  consists  of  meat  or  meat-food  products 
from  animals  slaughtered  by  a  farmer  on  the  farm  and  which  have  not  been 
"inspected  and  passed,"  the  form  of  certificate  shown  in  Section  14  of  this 
regulation  shall  be  used,  and  a  duplicate  shall  be  forwarded  immediately  by 
the  ferry  company  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Paragraph  5.  When  a  shipper's  certificate  for  meat  or  meat-food  products 
has  been  issued  and  is  on  file  with  the  initial  carrier,  and  that  fact  is  shown 
by  notation  on  the  billing,  the  ferry  company  need  not  require  another  certifi- 
cate. 

SECTION  18.1  Imported  meat  or  meat-food  products  which  have  not  been 
mixed  or  compounded  with  or  added  to  domestic  meat  or  meat-food  products 
may  be  transported  by  any  common  carrier  from  one  State  or  Territory  or 
the  District  of  Columbia  into  another  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of 
Columbia  if  the  packages  containing  them  are  marked  "Inspected  under  the 
Food  and  Drugs  Act  of  June  30,  1906,"  when  received  for  transportation. 

SECTION  19.2  Paragraph  1.  Meat  or  meat-food  products  which  have  been 
inspected  and  passed  and  so  marked,  and  which  have  been  transported  from 
the  establishments  in  which  they  were  prepared  into  the  channels  of  trade, 
and  which  are  alleged  or  known  to  have  become  unsound,  unwholesome,  or 
otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  may  be  transported  in  interstate  commerce 
only  under  the  following  restrictions: 

Paragraph  2.  Meat  or  meat-food  products  inspected  and  passed  and  so 
marked  and  which  are  alleged  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit 
for  human  food  may  be  shipped  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District 
of  Columbia  to  any  official  establishment  in  the  same  or  a  different  State  or 
Territory  if  a  written  permit  in  duplicate  for  such  shipment  be  first  obtained 
from  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  establishment  to  which  the  shipment  is 
destined.  In  all  such  shipments  both  the  original  and  duplicate  copies  of  the 
permits  shall  be  surrendered  to  the  carrier  accepting  the  meat  or  meat-food 
product,  and  the  carrier  shall  require  the  shipper  to  furnish  three  copies  of  the 
form  of  certificate  hereinafter  given.  One  of  these  certificates  and  the  dupli- 
cate copy  of  the  permit  shall  be  retained  by  the  carrier;  another  copy  of  the 
certificate,  together  with  the  original  permit,  shall  be  mailed  by  the  carrier 
to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  the 
third  copy  of  the  certificate  shall  be  addressed  and  mailed  by  the  carrier  to 
the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  inspector  in  charge  at  the  point  to  which  the 
shipment  is  consigned.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  shipment  at  the  establishment 

1  Formerly  Regulation  64,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 

2  Formerly  Regulation  61,  B.  A.  I.  Order  137. 


TRANSPORTATION  135 

the  inspector  in  charge  shall  cause  a  careful  inspection  to  be  made  of  the  ship- 
ment, to  determine  whether  or  not  it  is  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise 
unfit  for  food.  Should  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  contained  in  the  ship- 
ment prove  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food, 
it  shall  at  once  be  stamped  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned"  and  be  imme- 
diately tanked  or  removed  to  the  condemned  room.  If  the  meat  or  meat-food 
product  contained  in  the  shipment  shall  prove  to  be  sound,  wholesome,  and 
fit  for  human  food,  the  inspector  shall  allow  the  meat  or  meat-food  product 
to  enter  the  establishment.  Meat  or  meat-food  products  at  an  official  establish- 
ment alleged  or  known  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for 
human  food  shall  not  be  shipped  under  this  paragraph,  but  must  be  disposed 
of  at  the  establishment. 

Paragraph  3.  Meat  or  meat-food  products  which  have  been  inspected  and 
passed  and  are  so  marked  and  are  alleged  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or 
otherwise  unfit  for  human  food  may  be  returned  from  one  State  or  Territory 
or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  any  jobber,  wholesaler,  or  other  dealer  from  whom 
the  said  meat  or  meat-food  product  was  purchased,  if  a  written  permit,  in 
duplicate,  for  such  shipment  be  first  obtained  from  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry.  In  all  such  shipments  both  the  original  and  duplicate 
copies  of  the  permits  shall  be  surrendered  to  the  carrier  accepting  the  meat 
or  meat-food  product,  and  the  carrier  shall  require  the  shipper  to  furnish  two 
copies  of  the  form  of  certificate  hereinafter  given.  One  of  these  certificates 
and  the  duplicate  copy  of  the  permit  shall  be  retained  by  the  carrier,  and  the 
other  copy  of  the  certificate,  together  with  the  original  permit,  shall  be  mailed 
by  the  carrier  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Washington, 
D.  C.  If  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  which  is  shipped  under  this  section 
shall  prove  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food 
it  may;  be  reshipped  in  interstate  commerce  as  a  food  product. 

Paragraph  4.  The  shipper's  certificate  required  by  Paragraphs  2  and  3 
of  this  section  shall  be  in  the  following  form,  and  shall  in  all  cases  show  a  descrip- 
tion and  the  weight  of  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  i1 

Date 191 

Name  of  common  carrier    

Consignor 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee 

Destination   

Number  of  permit    

I  hereby  certify  that  the  following-described  meat  or  meat-food  products 
have  been  inspected  and  passed  according  to  the  act  of  Congress  of  June  30, 
1906,  and  are  so  marked.  It  is  alleged  that  the  said  meat  or  meat-food  products 
are  uhsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  and  unfit  for  human  food. 

Kind  of  product.  Amount  and  weight. 


(Signature  of   shipper.) 
(Business  or  occupation  of  shipper.) 
(Address  of  shipper.) 


1  Attention  is  directed  to  the  meat-inspection  law,  which  provides  a  penalty  of  a  fine  of  $10,000 
and  imprisonment  for  two  years  for  any  person  who  ships  for  human  consumption  in  interstate  or 
foreign  trade  any  meat  or  meat-food  product  which  is  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit 
for  human  food. 


136  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

As  evidence  to  connecting  carriers  that  the  proper  shipper's  certificate  as 
required  by  this  paragraph  is  on  file  with  the  initial  carrier,  the  waybills,  transfer 
bills,  running  slips,  or  conductor's  cards  accompanying  the  shipments  of  meat 
or  meat-food  products,  made  under  Paragraphs  2  and  3  of  this  section,  must 
have  embodied  in,  stamped  upon,  or  attached  to  the  same  a  signed  statement 
in  the  following  form: 

(Name  of  railroad  company.) 

Meat  or  meat-food  product  alleged  to  be  unsound,  unwholesome,  or  other- 
wise unfit  for  food,  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate  on  file  with  initial 
carrier. 

(Signed)         Agent. 

Paragraph  5.  Uninspected  meat  or  meat-food  product,  or  meat  or  meat- 
food  product  inspected  and  marked  and  which  is  known  to  have  become  un- 
sound, unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  or  inedible  grease 
or  tallow  or  other  fat,  may  be  shipped  from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District 
of  Columbia  to  another  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  or  to  a 
foreign  country  for  industrial  purposes.  No  such  shipment  shall  be  accepted 
by  any  carrier  unless  and  until  the  product  which  is  known  to  be  unsound, 
unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  food  shall  have  been  denatured  or  other- 
wise rendered  unavailable  for  food  purposes.  The  carrier  shall  require  the 
shipper  to  certify  in  writing  that  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  has  been  so 
denatured  or  otherwise  rendered  unavailable  for  food  purposes.  This  certifi- 
cate of  the  shipper  that  the  meat  or  meat-food  product  has  been  denatured  shall 
be  forwarded  by  the  carrier  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Washington,  D.  C.  It  is  suggested  that  the  shipper's  certificate  of  denaturing 
required  for  shipments  made  under  this  paragraph  be  in  the  following  form: 

Date ..191 

Name  of  common  carrier 

Consignor 

Point  of  shipment 

Consignee 

Destination 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  following  described  inedible  meat  or  meat-food 
products  have  been  denatured  or  otherwise  rendered  unavailable  for  food  pur- 
poses. 

Kind  of  product.  Amount  and  weight. 


(Signature  of  shipper.) 
(Business  or  occupation  of  shipper.) 
(Address  of   shipper.) 


As  evidence  to  connecting  carriers  that  the  proper  shipper's  certificate  is 
on  file  with  the  initial  carrier,  the  waybills,  transfer  bills,  running  slips,  or 
conductors'  cards  accompanying  the  shipment  of  meat  or  meat-food  product 
under  this  paragraph  must  have  embodied  in,  stamped  upon,  or  attached  to 
the  same  a  signed  statement  in  the  following  form: 

(Name  of  railroad  company.) 

Unsound,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  food,  and  denatured  or  other- 
wise rendered  unavailable  for  food  purposes,  as  evidenced  by  shipper's  certificate 
on  file  with  the  initial  carrier. 

(Signed)          Agent. 


LAW  UNDER  WHICH  FOREGOING  REGULATIONS  ARE  MADE     137 


REGULATION  26.     COUNTERFEITING,  ETC. 

SECTION  1.  It  is  a  misdemeanor,  punishable  by  fine  and  imprisonment, 
for  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  officer,  agent,  or  employee  thereof  to 
forge,  counterfeit,  simulate,  or  falsely  represent,  or  without  proper  authority 
to  use,  fail  to  use,  or  detach,  or  knowingly  or  wrongfully  to  alter,  deface,  or 
destroy,  or  to  fail  to  deface  or  destroy  any  of  the  marks,  stamps,  tags,  labels, 
or  other  identification  devices  provided  for  by  law  or  by  these  regulations, 
on  any  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  or  the  food  product,  or  the  containers 
thereof,  or  wrongfully  to  use,  deface,  or  destroy  any  certificate  provided  for 
by  law  or  by  these  regulations. 


REGULATION  27.     REPORTS 

SECTION  1.  Reports  of  the  work  of  inspection  carried  on  in  every  official 
establishment  shall  be  forwarded  to  the  department  by  the  inspector  in  charge, 
on  such  blank  forms  and  in  such  manner  as  may  be  specified  by  the  Chief 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

SECTION  2.  The  proprietors  of  official  establishments  shall  furnish  daily 
to  the  department  employees  detailed  to  the  various  departments  accurate 
information  regarding  receipts,  shipments,  and  amounts  of  products  on  which 
to  base  their  daily  reports. 

SECTION  3.  Reports  on  sanitation  shall  be  made  at  stated  times  by  the 
department  employees  in  charge  of  the  various  departments  to  the  inspector 
in  charge  of  the  station,  and  by  the  inspector  in  charge  to  the  Chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  If  any  insanitary  conditions  are  detected  by 
any  department  employee,  such  conditions  shall  be  reported  immediately 
to  the  inspector  in  charge,  who,  after  investigation,  shall  report  them  to  the 
Chief  of  the  Bureau. 

REGULATION  28.     APPEALS 

SECTION -1.  When  the  action  of  any  inspector  in  condemning  any  carcass 
or  part  thereof,  meat,  or  meat-food  product  is  questioned,  appeal  may  be 
made  to  the  inspector  in  charge,  and  from  his  decision  appeal  may  be  made 
to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  or  to  .the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture, whose  decision  shall  be  final. 


REGULATION  29.    CO-OPERATION  WITH  MUNICIPAL  AUTHORITIES 

SECTION  1.  Inspectors  in  charge  are  directed  to  notify  the  municipal  author- 
ities of  the  character  of  inspection,  and  upon  request  to  advise  with  such 
authorities  with  a  view  to  preventing  the  entry  into  the  local  markets  of  diseased 
animals  or  their  products.  The  details  of  any  proposed  co-operative  arrange- 
ment must  be  first  submitted  to  and  approved  by  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry. 


LAW   UNDER   WHICH    THE   FOREGOING    REGULATIONS    ARE 

MADE 

Extract  from  an  act  of  Congress  entitled  "An  act  making  appropriations  for 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  thirtieth,  nine- 
teen hundred  and  seven/'  approved  June  30,  1906  (34  Stat.,  674). 


138  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 


THE  MEAT-INSPECTION  AMENDMENT 

That  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  use  in  interstate  or  foreign  com- 
merce, as  hereinafter  provided,  of  meat  and  meat-food  products  which  are 
unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  at  his  discretion,  may  cause  to  be  made,  by  inspectors 
appointed  for  that  purpose,  an  examination  and  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  and  goats  before  they  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  into  any  slaughtering, 
packing,  meat-canning,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment,  in  which  they 
are  to  be  slaughtered  and  the  meat  and  meat-food  products  thereof  are  to 
be  used  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce;  and  all  cattle,  swine,  sheep,  and 
goats  found  on  such  inspection  to  show  symptoms  of  disease  shall  be  set  apart 
and  slaughtered  separately  from  all  other  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats,  and 
when  so  slaughtered  the  carcasses  of  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  shall 
be  subject  to  a  careful  examination  and  inspection,  all  as  provided  by  the 
rules  and  regulations  to  be  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  herein 
provided  for. 

That  for  the  purposes  hereinbefore  set  forth  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
shall  cause  to  be  made  by  inspectors  appointed  for  that  purpose,  as  herein- 
after provided,  a  postmortem  examination  and  inspection  of  the  carcasses 
and  parts  thereof  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  to  be  prepared  for  human 
consumption  at  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering, 
or  similar  establishment  in  any  State,  Territory,  or  the  District  of  Columbia 
for  transportation  or  sale  as  articles  of  interstate  or  foreign  commerce;  and 
the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all  such  animals  found  to  be  sound,  health- 
ful, wholesome,  and  fit  for  human  food  shall  be  marked,  stamped,  tagged,  or 
labeled  as  "Inspected  and  Passed;"  and  said  inspectors  shall  label,  mark, 
stamp,  or  tag  as  " Inspected  and  Condemned"  all  carcasses  and  parts  thereof 
of  animals  found  to  be  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit 
for  human  food;  and  all  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  thus  inspected  and  con- 
demned shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes  by  the  said  establishment  in  the 
presence  of  an  inspector,  and  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  remove  inspector 
from  any  such  establishment  which  fails  to  so  destroy  any  such  condemned 
carcass  or  part  thereof,  and  said  inspectors,  after  said  first  inspection  shall, 
when  they  deem  it  necessary,  reinspect  said  carcasses  or  parts  thereof  to 
determine  whether  since  the  first  inspection  the  same  have  become  unsound, 
unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  in  any  way  unfit  for  human  food;  and  if  any 
carcass  or  any  part  thereof  shall,  upon  examination  and  inspection  subsequent 
to  the  first  examination  and  inspection,  be  found  to  be  unsound,  unhealthful, 
unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  it  shall  be  destroyed  for  food 
purposes  by  the  said  establishment  in  the  presence  of  an  inspector,  and  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  remove  inspectors  from  any  establishment  which 
fails  to  so  destroy  any  such  condemned  carcass  or  part  thereof. 

The  foregoing  provisions  shall  apply  to  all  carcasses  or  parts  of  carcasses 
of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  or  the  meat  or  meat  products  thereof  which 
may  be  brought  into  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering, 
or  similar  establishment,  and  such  examination  and  inspection  shall  be  had 
before  the  said  carcasses  or  parts  thereof  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  into  any 
department  wherein  the  same  are  to  be  treated  and  prepared  for  meat-food 
products;  and  the  foregoing  provisions  shall  also  apply  to  all  such  products 
which,  after  having  been  issued  from  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salt- 
ing, packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment,  shall  be  returned  to  the 
same  or  to  any  similar  establishment  where  such  inspection  is  maintained. 

That  for  the  purposes  hereinbefore  set  forth  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
shall  cause  to  be  made  by  inspectors  appointed  for  that  purpose  an  examina- 
tion and  inspection  of  all  meat-food  products  prepared  for  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce  in  any  slaughtering,  meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or 


THE  MEAT-INSPECTION  AMENDMENT  139 

similar  establishment,  and  for  the  purposes  of  any  examination  and  inspec- 
tion said  inspectors  shall  have  access  at  all  times,  by  day  or  night,  whether 
the  establishment  be  operated  or  not,  to  every  part  of  said  establishment; 
and  said  inspectors  shall  mark,  stamp,  tag,  or  label  as  " Inspected  and  Passed" 
all  such  products  found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  and  wholesome,  and  which 
contain  no  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingredients  which  render  such 
meat  or  meat-food  products  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  unfit 
for  human  food;  and  said  inspectors  shall  label,  mark,  stamp,  or  tag  as  " In- 
spected and  Condemned"  all  such  products  found  unsound,  unhealthful, 
and  unwholesome,  or  which  contain  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or  ingre- 
dients which  render  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  unsound,  unhealthful, 
unwholesome,  or  unfit  for  human  food,  and  all  such  condemned  meat-food 
products  shall  be  destroyed  for  food  purposes,  as  hereinbefore  provided,  and 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  remove  inspectors  from  any  establishment 
which  fails  to  so  destroy  such  condemned  meat-food  products:  Provided, 
That,  subject  to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
the  provisions  hereof  in  regard  to  preservatives  shall  not  apply  to  meat-food 
products  for  export  to  any  foreign  country,  and  which  are  prepared  or  packed 
according  to  the  specifications  or  directions  of  the  foreign  purchaser,  when 
no  substance  is  used  in  the  preparation  or  packing  thereof  in  conflict  with  the 
laws  of  the  foreign  country  to  which  said  article  is  to  be  exported;  but  if  said 
article  shall  be  in  fact  sold  or  offered  for  sale  for  domestic  use  or  consumption, 
then  this  proviso  shall  not  exempt  said  article  from  the  operation  of  all  the 
other  provisions  of  this  act. 

That  when  any  meat  or  meat-food  product  prepared  for  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce  which  has  been  inspected  as  hereinbefore  provided  and  marked 
" Inspected  and  Passed"  shall  be  placed  or  packed  in  any  can,  pot,  tin,  canvas, 
or  other  receptacle  or  covering  in  any  establishment  where  inspection  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act  is  maintained,  the  person,  firm,  or  corporation  pre- 
paring said  product  shall  cause  a  label  to  be  attached  to  said  can,  pot,  tin, 
canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering,  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector, 
which  label  shall  state  that  the  contents  thereof  have  been  "  Inspected  and 
Passed"  under  the  provisions  of  this  act;  and  no  inspection  and  examina- 
tion of  meat  or  meat-food  products  deposited  or  enclosed  in  cans,  tins,  pots, 
canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering  in  any  establishment  where  inspec- 
tion under  the  provisions  of  this  act  is  maintained  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
complete  until  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  have  been  sealed  or  inclosed 
in  said  can,  tin,  pot,  canvas,  or  other  receptacle  or  covering  under  the  super- 
vision of  an  inspector,  and  no  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  sold 
or  offered  for  sale  by  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  in  interstate  or  foreign 
commerce  under  any  false  or  deceptive  name;  but  established  trade  name 
or  names  which  are  usual  to  such  products  and  which  are  not  false  and  decep- 
tive and  which  shall  be  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  are  permitted. 

The  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  to  be  made,  by  experts  in  sanita- 
tion or  by  other  competent  inspectors,  such  inspection  of  all  slaughtering,  meat- 
canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishments  in  which  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  slaughtered  and  the  meat  and  meat-food  products 
thereof  are  prepared  for  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  as  may  be  necessary 
to  inform  himself  concerning  the  sanitary  conditions  of  the  same,  and  to  pre- 
scribe the  rules  and  regulations  of  sanitation  under  which  such  establishments 
shall  be  maintained;  and  where  the  sanitary  conditions  of  any  such  establish- 
ment are  such  that  the  meat  or  meat-food  products  are  rendered  unclean, 
unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  human  food,  he 
shall  refuse  to  allow  said  meat  or  meat-food  products  to  be  labeled,  marked, 
stamped,  or  tagged  as  "Inspected  and  Passed." 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  an  examination  and  inspection 
of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  and  the  food  products  thereof,  slaughtered 
and  prepared  in  the  establishments  hereinbefore  described  for  the  purposes 
of  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  to  be  made  during  the  nighttime  as  well 


140  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

as  during  the  day  time  when  the  slaughtering  of  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and 
goats,  or  the  preparation  of  said  food  products  is  conducted  during  the  night- 
time. 

That  on  and  after  October  first,  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  no  person,  firm, 
or  corporation  shall  transport  or  offer  for  transportation,  and  no  carrier  of 
interstate  or  foreign  commerce  shall  transport  or  receive  for  transportation 
from  one  State  or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia  to  any  other  State 
or  Territory  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  to  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  United  States,  or  to  any  foreign  country,  any  carcasses  or  parts  thereof, 
meat,  or  meat-food  products  thereof,  which  have  not  been  inspected,  examined, 
and  marked  as  "  Inspected  and  Passed/'  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  this 
act  and  with  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture: Provided,  That  all  meat  and  meat-food  products  on  hand  on  October 
first,  nineteen  hundred  and  six,  at  establishments  where  inspection  has  not 
been  maintained,  or  which  have  been  inspected  under  existing  law,  shall  be 
examined  and  labeled  under  such  rules  and  regulations  as  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  shall  prescribe,  and  then  shall  be  allowed  to  be  sold  in  interstate 
or  foreign  commerce. 

That  no  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  officer,  agent,  or  employee  thereof 
shall  forge,  counterfeit,  simulate,  or  falsely  represent,  or  shall  without  proper 
authority  use,  fail  to  use,  or  detach,  or  shall  knowingly  or  wrongfully  alter, 
deface,  or  destroy,  or  fail  to  deface  or  destroy,  any  of  the  marks,  stamps,  tags, 
labels,  or  other  identification  devices  provided  for  in  this  act,  or  in  and  as 
directed  by  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  hereunder  by  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  on  any  carcasses,  parts  of  carcasses,  or  the  food  product,  or 
containers  thereof,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  or  any  certificate  in 
relation,  thereto,  authorized  or  required  by  this  act  or  by  the  said  rules  and 
regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  cause  to  be  made  a  careful  inspec- 
tion of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  intended  and  offered  for  export  to 
foreign  countries  at  such  times  and  places,  and  in  such  manner  as  he  may  deem 
proper,  to  ascertain  whether  such  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  free  from 
disease. 

And  for  this  purpose  he  may  appoint  inspectors  who  shall  be  authorized  to 
give  an  official  certificate  clearly  stating  the  condition  in  which  such  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  and  goats  are  found. 

And  no  clearance  shall  be  given  to  any  vessel  having  on  board  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  or  goats  for  export  to  a  foreign  country  until  the  owner  or  shipper  of 
such  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  has  a  certificate  from  the  inspector  herein 
authorized  to  be  appointed,  stating  that  the  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats 
are  sound  and  healthy,  or  unless  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  have  waived 
the  requirement  of  such  certificate  for  export  to  the  particular  country  to 
which  such  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  or  goats  are  to  be  exported. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  also  cause  to  be  made  a  careful 
inspection  of  the  carcasses  and  parts  thereof  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and 
goats,  the  meat  of  which,  fresh,  salted,  canned,  corned,  packed,  cured,  or 
otherwise  prepared,  is  intended  and  offered  for  export  to  any  foreign  country, 
at  such  times  and  places  and  in  such  manner  as  he  may  deem  proper. 

And  for  this  purpose  he  may  appoint  inspectors  who  shall  be  authorized  to 
give  an  official  certificate  stating  the  condition  in  which  said  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  or  goats,  and  the  meat  thereof  are  found. 

And  no  clearance  shall  be  given  to  any  vessel  having  on  board  any  fresh, 
salted,  canned,  corned,  or  packed  beef,  mutton,  pork,  or  goat  meat,  being 
the  meat  of  animals  killed  after  the  passage  of  this  act,  or  except  as  herein- 
before provided  for  export  to  and  sale  in  a  foreign  country  from  any  port  in 
the  United  States,  until  the  owner  or  shipper  thereof  shall  obtain  from  an 
inspector  appointed  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  a  certificate  that  the 
said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  were  sound  and  healthy  at  the  time  of 
inspection,  and  that  their  meat  is  sound  and  wholesome,  unless  the  Secretary 


THE  MEAT-INSPECTION  AMENDMENT  141 

of  Agriculture  shall  have  waived  the  requirements  of  such  certificate  for  the 
country  to  which  said  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  or  meats  are  to  be  exported. 

That  the  inspectors  provided  for  herein  shall  be  authorized  to  give  official 
certificates  of  the  sound  and  wholesome  condition  of  the  cattle,  sheep,  swine, 
and  goats,  their  carcasses  and  products  as  herein  described,  and  one  copy  of 
every  certificate  granted  under  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall  be  filed  in  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  another  copy  shall  be  delivered  to  the  owner  or 
shipper,  and  when  the  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats  or  their  carcasses  and 
products  are  sent  abroad,  a  third  copy  shall  be  delivered  to  the  chief  officer 
of  the  vessel  on  which  the  shipment  shall  be  made. 

That  no  person,  firm,  or  corporation  engaged  in  the  interstate  commerce 
of  meat  or  meat-food  products  shall  transport  or  offer  for  transportation, 
sell  or  offer  to  sell  any  such  meat  or  meat-food  products  in  any  State  or  Terri- 
tory or  in  the  District  of  Columbia  or  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
United  States,  other  than  in  the  State  or  Territory  or  in  the  District  of  Columbia 
or  any  place  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  in  which  the  slaughter- 
ing, packing,  canning,  rendering,  or  other  similar  establishment  owned,  leased, 
operated  by  said  firm,  person,  or  corporation  is  located  unless  and  until  said 
person,  firm,  or  corporation  shall  have  complied  with  all  of  the  provisions 
of  this  act. 

That  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  any  officer  or  agent  of  any  such 
person,  firm,  or  corporation,  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of  this 
act  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  shall  be  punished  on  convic- 
tion thereof  by  a  fine  of  not  exceeding  ten  thousand  dollars  or  imprisonment 
for  a  period  not  more  than  two  years,  or  by  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment, 
in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  appoint  from  time  to  time  inspectors 
to  make  examination  and  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,, 
the  inspection  of  which  is  hereby  provided  for,  and  of  all  carcasses  and  parts 
thereof,  and  of  all  meats  and  meat-food  products  thereof,  and  of  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  all  establishments  in  which  such  meat  and  meat-food  products 
hereinbefore  described  are  prepared;  and  said  inspectors  shall  refuse  to  stamp, 
mark,  tag,  or  label  any  carcass  or  any  part  thereof,  or  meat-food  product  there- 
from, prepared  in  any  establishment  hereinbefore  mentioned,  until  the  same 
shall  have  actually  been  inspected  and  found  to  be  sound,  healthful,  wholesome, 
and  fit  for  human  food,  and  to  contain  no  dyes,  chemicals,  preservatives,  or 
ingredients  which  render  such  meat-food  product  unsound,  unhealthful,  un- 
wholesome, or  unfit  for  human  food;  and  to  have  been  prepared  under  proper 
sanitary  conditions,  hereinbefore  provided  for;  and  shall  perform  such  other 
duties  as  are  provided  by  this  act  and  by  the  rules  and  regulations  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  said  Secretary  of  Agriculture;  and  said  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
shall,  from  time  to  time,  make  such  rules  and  regulations  as  are  necessary 
for  the  efficient  execution  of  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  all  inspections 
and  examinations  made  under  this  act  shall  be  such  and  made  in  such  manner 
as  described  in  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  said  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture not  inconsistent  with  the  provisions  of  this  act. 

That  any  person,  firm,  or  corporation,  or  any  agent  or  employee  of  any 
person,  firm,  or  corporation,  who  shall  give,  pay,  or  offer,  directly  or  indirectly, 
to  any  inspector,  deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  any  other  officer  or 
employee  of  the  United  States  authorized  to  perform  any  of  the  duties  pre- 
scribed by  this  act  or  by  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
any  money  or  other  thing  of  value,  with  intent  to  influence  said  inspector, 
deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  other  officer  or  employee  of  the  United 
States  in  the  discharge  of  any  duty  herein  provided  for,  shall  be  deemed  guilty 
of  a  felony  and,  upon  conviction  thereof,  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  less 
than  five  thousand  dollars  nor  more  than  ten  thousand  dollars  and  by  imprison- 
ment not  less  than  one  year  nor  more  than  three  years;  and  any  inspector, 
deputy  inspector,  chief  inspector,  or  other  officer  or  employee  of  the  United 
States  authorized  to  perform  any  of  the  duties  prescribed  by  this  act  who 


142  REGULATIONS  GOVERNING  MEAT  INSPECTION 

shall  accept  any  money,  gift,  or  other  thing  of  value  from  any  person,  firm, 
or  corporation,  or  officers,  agents,  or  employees  thereof,  given  with  intent 
to  influence  his  official  action,  or  who  shall  receive  or  accept  from  any  person, 
firm,  or  corporation  engaged  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  any  gift,  money. 
or  other  thing  of  value  given  with  any  purpose  or  intent  whatsoever,  shall 
be  deemed  guilty  of  a  felony  and  shall,  upon  conviction  thereof,  be  summarily 
discharged  from  office  and  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  less  than  one  thousand 
dollars  nor  more  than  ten  thousand  dollars  and  by  imprisonment  not  less  than 
one  year  nor  more  than  three  years. 

That  the  provisions  of  this  act  requiring  inspection  .to  be  made  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall  not  apply  to  animals  slaughtered  by  any  farmer 
on  the  farm  and  sold  and  transported  as  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  nor 
to  retail  butchers  and  retail  dealers  in  meat  and  meat-food  products,  supplying 
their  customers:  Provided,  That  if  any  person  shall  sell  or  offer  for  sale  or 
transportation  for  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  any  meat  or  meat-food 
products  which  are  diseased,  unsound,  unhealthful,  unwholesome,  or  other- 
wise unfit  for  human  food,  knowing  that  such  meat-food  products  are  intended 
for  human  consumption,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  on  convic- 
tion thereof  shall  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  one  thousand  dollars 
or  by  imprisonment  for  a  period  of  not  exceeding  one  year,  or  by  both  such 
fine  and  imprisonment:  Provided,  also,  That  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  is 
authorized  to  maintain  the  inspection  in  this  act  provided  for  at  any  slaughter- 
ing, meat-canning,  salting,  packing,  rendering,  or  similar  establishment  not- 
withstanding this  exception,  and  that  the  persons  operating  the  same  may 
be  retail  butchers  and  retail  dealers  or  farmers;  and  where  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  shall  establish  such  inspection,  then  the  provisions  of  this  act  shall 
apply  notwithstanding  this  exception. 

That  there  is  permanently  appropriated,  out  of  any  money  in  the  Treasury 
not  otherwise  appropriated,  the  sum  of  three  million  dollars,  for  the  expenses 
of  the  inspection  of  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and  goats,  and  the  meat  and  meat- 
food  products  thereof  which  enter  into  interstate  or  foreign  commerce  and  for 
all  expenses  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  this  act  relating 
to  meat  inspection,  including  rent  and  the  employment  of  labor  in  Washington 
and  elsewhere,  for  each  year.  And  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  shall,  in  his 
annual  estimates  made  to  Congress,  submit  a  statement  in  detail,  showing  the 
number  of  persons  employed  in  such  inspections  and  the  salary  or  per  diem 
paid  to  each,  together  with  the  contingent  expenses  of  such  inspectors  and 
where  they  have  been  and  are  employed. 


CHAPTER    V 

ORGANIZATION  AND  METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF  THE 
INSPECTION  FORCE 

As  the  organization  of  meat  inspection  in  the  United  States  varies 
somewhat  from  that  of  Germany,  it  is  deemed  essential  to  incorporate 
in  this  text-book  the  conditions  applying  to  the  meat-inspection  force 
in  this  country,  and  also  to  describe  the  methods  of  procedure  which 
are  required  in  the  execution  of  the  antemortem  and  postmortem 
inspection  by  the  Government  inspector.  As  this  subject  is  so  thor- 
oughly treated  by  Dr.  A.  D.  Melvin,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  in  his  work  on  the  Federal  Meat  Inspection  Service,1  he  will 
be  quoted  in  substance  in  the  following: 

PERSONNEL  OF  THE  INSPECTION  FORCE 

The  Bureau's  employees  are  both  capable  and  expert.  The  men  in  charge 
of  all  stations  where  slaughtering  is  done,  and  the  men  who  do  the  postmortem 
work  at  all  stations,  are  veterinarians.  These  men  must  first  have  successfully 
completed  a  three  years'  course  in  veterinary  medicine  at  a  reputable  veterinary 
college.  The  Department  recognizes  only  fourteen  such  institutions,  exclud- 
ing several  so-called  colleges  that  aspire  to  cover  this  field  of  knowledge.  The 
Civil  Service  Commission  examines  these  graduates,  and  about  50  per  cent, 
of  those  examined  make  the  required  grade  of  70. 

For  the  information  of  those  who  believe  that  a  letter  written  to  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  by  an  influential  citizen  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  appointment 
to  this  service,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Department  makes  absolutely  no 
permanent  appointments  except  of  men  whose  names  are  certified  to  it  by  the 
Civil  Service  Commission.  During  a  period  of  six  months  one  so  appointed 
is  on  probation,  and  if  he  fails  to  measure  up  to  the  requirements  he  is  dropped. 
If  at  the  end  of  this  six  months  he  attains  his  absolute  appointment,  he  is  not 
at  once  freed  of  supervision  and  clothed  with  full  authority  to  pass  or  condemn. 
The  force  is  large,  and  he  is  so  placed  on  it  under  experienced  inspectors  that 
he  may  learn  the  law  and  regulations  and  the  methods  of  their  application. 
A  set  of  rules,  supplemented,  of  course,  by  some  necessary  discretion  on  the  part 
of  the  heads  of  the  service,  govern  his  advancement  in  authority  and  salary. 
On  the  latter  men  rests  the  burden  of  inspection.  The  Bureau  holds  them 
responsible,  and  they  well  understand  that  their  promotion  depends  on  efficient 
and  faithful  service.  They  have  ample  opportunity  to  become  experts  in  detect- 
ing diseased  animals,  and  they  do.  The  Department  demands  all  their  time 
during  the  working  day,  and  a  man  must  be  dull  indeed  if  in  the  days,  months, 
and  years  spent  amid  the  swift  work  of  the  killing  floors  he  fails  to  develop 
a  most  masterly  dexterity  in  discovering  abnormalities  in  the  carcasses  that 
come  before  him. 

The  laboratory  inspectors  constitute  another  class  of  employees.  They 
also  are  selected  through  civil  service  examination  in  the  principles  of  bac- 
teriology and  chemistry,  with  special  application  to  meats. 

1  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Circular  125. 


144     METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION  FORCE 

A  third  grade  of  employee  is  the  inspector's  assistant.  Being  under  the 
direction  of  the  veterinarian,  he  is  not  required  to  be  himself  regularly  educated 
along  this  line.  He  examines  live  stock,  tags  animals,  stamps  carcasses,  seals 
cars,  patrols  the  houses  at  night,  superintends  the  removal  and  tanking  of 
condemned  carcasses — in  short,  he  does  everything  he  can,  where  expert  patho- 
logical knowledge  is  unnecessary,  to  relieve  and  assist  the  veterinarian. 

The  meat  inspector  is  a  fourth  class.  He  is  expert  in  pickling,  salting,  smok- 
ing, and  otherwise  curing  meat.  He  likewise  enters  the  service  through  the 
civil  service  examinations,  and  his  previous  experience  is  taken  into  account 
in  grading  him.  By  means  of  the  educated  senses  of  sight  and  smell  he  can 
tell  when  a  piece  of  meat  is  unfit,  and  he  knows  whether  it  is  irretrievably 
bad  or  whether  it  can  be  utilized.  This  class  of  employees  condemned  14,000,000 
pounds  of  meat  in  the  fiscal  year  1906  and  1907. 

The  Bureau  selects  certain  of  the  most  experienced  veterinary  inspectors 
and  meat  inspectors,,  divides  the  country  into  districts,  and  sends  these  men 
traveling  through  them,  visiting  every  station  and  every  plant.  Their  visits 
are  unannounced,  and  they  submit  reports  with  recommendations  to  the 
Washington  office.  They  are  able,  out  of  their  wider  experience,  to  instruct 
the  inspectors  in  charge  at  the  various  stations,  and  their  reports  are  of  great 
value  to  the  Department  in  its  efforts  to  secure  a  uniform  inspection  and  to 
learn  of  insanitary  conditions  and  have  them  corrected.  That  the  regulations 
are  enforced  is  capable  of  demonstration  by  an  examination  of  the  reports  of 
the  number  of  animals  condemned.  Other  safeguards,  however,  are  provided. 
The  law  promises  to  fine  not  less  than  $5000  and  to  imprison  for  at  least  a  year 
any  man  who  gives  anything  of  value,  even  a  piece  of  meat,  to  a  Government 
employee  to  influence  him  in  the  performance  of  his  duties;  it  is  stricter  still 
with  such  employees,  for  it  holds  over  them  the  menace  of  similar  fine  and 
imprisonment  if  they  accept  any  thing  of  value,  no  matter  what  the  intent 
of  the  donor  or  the  purpose  of  the  gift  may  be.  It  is  thus  dangerous  for  the 
packer  to  bribe,  and  it  is  more  dangerous  still  for  the  employee  to  accept. 

The  Bureau  places  further  obstacles  in  the  way  of  collusion  between  inspector 
and  owner  by  frequent  changes  at  the  larger  stations  of  employees  from  house 
to  house,  and  by  changes,  less  frequent,  of  employees  from  station  to  station. 
It  is  working  constantly,  also,  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  inspection  at  all 
stations.  It  has  a  very  complex  system  of  reports,  and  its  experts  scrutinize 
these  with  the  view  of  discovering  abnormalities  in  results  and  making  the 
proper  corrections.  Again,  practically  all  the  operations  of  slaughtering  and 
preparing  meats  are  open  to  the  world,  and  are,  indeed,  in  the  larger  centres 
one  of  the  sights  to  which  visitors  flock.  It  is  well  known  that  accredited  repre- 
sentatives of  foreign  governments,  expert  and  otherwise,  see  all  the  processes 
of  inspection,  and  more  than  one  has  satisfied  himself  and  his  government, 
sometimes  to  the  surprise  of  both,  that  inspection  is  all  that  it  is  claimed  to  be. 
Publicists  also  spend  days  in  the  stockyards  and  packing  houses,  embodying 
the  results  of  their  observations  in  articles  that  have  recently  been  of  a  more 
favorable  tone  than  they  were  one  or  two  years  ago. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  submitted  that  no  material  dishonesty  in  the  inspection 
can  long  exist,  in  view  of  the  above  methods  and  facts,  and  owing  further  to 
the  involuntary  espionage  that  each  employee  undergoes  from  his  fellow- 
employees,  which,  while  it  is  not  depended  upon  by  the  Department,  is  yet  a 
powerful  factor  in  maintaining  a  strict  integrity  iu  the  enforcement  of  the  law. 

X 

THE   PERFORMANCE    OF   ANTEMORTEM  AND   POSTMORTEM 

INSPECTION 

For  the  carrying  on  of  the  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection, 
the  published  regulations  of  the  meat-inspection  law  prescribe  the 
detailed  requirements.  These  instructions  for  the  U.  S.  Inspector  of 


ANTKMORTEM   AND  POSTMORTEM    I\S1>ECTION  145 

meats  are  contained  in  the  regulations  of  the  Federal  meat-inspection 
service,  B.  A.  I.  Order,  Xo.  150.  It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to 
discuss  here  only  a  few  technical  and  especially  important  conditions. 

Action  in  General. — Antemortem  Inspection  of  Food  Animals. — The 
performance  of  the  antemortem  inspection  is  regulated  by  the  regula- 
tions governing  the  enforcement  of  the  meat-inspection  law,  and 
does  not  necessitate  a  further  explanation  for  the  veterinary  inspector. 

Concerning  the  age  of  tire  food  animals  the  most  important  informa- 
tion has  already  been  given  on  page  3o. 

The  influence  of  transportation  on  the  condition  of  food  animals  was 
considered  on  page  25. 

Regarding  the  diseases  which  may  be  observed,  reference  should 
be  made  to  Chapters  VII  and  VIII. 

( Concerning  the  judgment  on  living  food  animals  see  page  171.  Under 
certain  conditions  slaughter  can  be  permitted  only  after  a  period  of 
rest  (see  page  27).  The  inspector  has  also  the  authority  to  request 
that  the  slaughter  should  be  undertaken  at  an  established  hour  and 
in  his  presence.  A  reinspection  must  be  made  should  the  slaughter 
have  been  delayed  for  over  two  days  after  permission  was  granted. 

[The  antemortem  inspection  in  the  United  States  is  governed  by 
B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  11,  the  carrying  out  of  which  is  described 
as  follows : 

The  antemortem  inspection  of  live  stock  is  highly  important  and 
a  valuable  safeguard  to  the  health  of  the  meat  consumer,  as  there 
are  certain  diseases  and  conditions  not  attended  with  any  gross  lesions 
in  the  carcass,  albeit  they  are  noxious  and  repugnant.  Direct  proof 
of  this  is  found  in  the  literature  of  meat  poisoning,  the  great  majority 
of  which  cases  could  be  directly  traced  to  eating  the  meat  of  cattle 
slaughtered  in  emergency  without  any  noticeable  changes  being 
observed  in  the  tissues  on  postmortem  examination.  The  interests 
of  the  live-stock  industry  are  also  protected  by  this  examination, 
since  none  but  healthy  animals  which  have  not  been  exposed  to  any 
infectious  disease  are  permitted  to  be  shipped  from  the  Union  Stock 
Yards  to  the  farm  as  breeders  and  feeders  or  to  the  abattoirs  of  other 
cities  not  having  Federal  inspection.  A  brief  description  of  the  condi- 
tion of  each  rejected  animal  is  recorded  on  a  permit  signed  by  the 
yard  inspector,  which  permit  is  delivered  to  the  abattoir  inspector 
in  order  that  the  animal  may  be  properly  identified  on  the  killing 
floor.  It  is  then  held  for  final  disposition  on  postmortem  examination, 
with  the  exception  of  those  animals  that  have  been  rejected  for 
advanced  pregnancy  and  recent  parturition.  These  latter  may  be 
held  until  they  have  fully  recovered  from  the  parturient  state  (ten 
days)  and  then  slaughtered;  or  in  case  they  are  not  affected  with, 
or  have  not  been  exposed  to,  any  infectious  disease  they  may  be  sold 
for  stock  purposes. 

As  conducted  at  present,  the  first  step  in  actual  inspection  is  the  examination 
of  the  living  aninml.     The  law  does  not  absolutely  require  this,  but  places  it 
within  the   discretion   of  the  Secretary,      (lovernment   inspectors   make   this 
10 


140      METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION  FORCE 

examination  in  the  stockyards  or  in  the  pens,  alleys,  etc.,  of  the  establishment 
by  which  the  animals  have  been  bought  and  in  the  slaughter  house  of  which  they 
are  proposed  to  be  slaughtered,  and  on  animals  which  have  not  undergone 
this  examination  are  allowed  to  enter  the  slaughter  house  proper.  The  pens 
contain  from  as  low  as  10  to  as  high  as  200  animals  each.  The  inspector  goes 
into  the  pen  and  looks  carefully  over  each  animal.  When  he  finds  one  that  to 
his  mind  is  not  perfectly  sound  and  healthy,  he  or  his  assistant  affixes  to  its 
ear  a  numbered  metal  tag  bearing  the  words  "U.  S.  Suspect."  Such  animals 
are  segregated  and  slaughtered  separately  from  other  animals,  either  before 
or  after  the  regular  course  of  the  killing.  If  the  postmortem  examination  of 
an  animal  does  not  confirm  the  suspicions  aroused  by  the  appearance  of  the 
live  animal,  and  no  lesions  of  disease  are  found,  the  tag  is  taken  off  and  sent 
to  the  office  of  the  inspector  in  charge  of  the  station,  who  has  already  been 
informed  of  the  number  of  the  tag  after  it  was  affixed  on  suspicion,  and  the 
carcass  is  sent  along  as  edible  meat.  If  lesions  are  found  which  warrant  con- 
demnation, the  carcass  is  sent  to  the  tank,  the  tag  being  removed  and  taken 
with  a  report  to  the  office.] 

Inspection  of  the  Slaughtered  Animals  (Meat  Inspection). — For  the 
examination  of  the  slaughtered  animals  exact  directions  are  given 
in  the  regulations  of  the  meat-inspection  law.  The  presence  of  veter- 
inary inspectors  at  the  slaughter  is  urgently  desired  in  certain  diseases 
(for  instance,  peritonitis,  pleuritis,  pericarditis,  and  certain  abscess 
formations) . 

Although  it  is  desirable  to  limit  the  work  of  inspection  to  those 
hours  showing  sufficient  daylight,  this  cannot  always  be  accomplished 
for  obvious  reasons.  For  inspection  by  artificial  light  an  abundant, 
and,  if  possible,  a  white  light  should  be  demanded;  while  in  ambula- 
tory meat  inspection,  examinations  under  oil  or  plain  gas  light  in  the 
winter  time  cannot  be  entirely  prevented,  yet  they  should  be  positively 
postponed  if  there  is  any  suspicion  of  an  injurious  condition  of  the 
entire  meat  (blood  poisoning),  or  even  if  there  are  color  changes  of 
the  meat  (jaundice).  In  the  latter  case  examinations  should  be  made 
only  by  daylight.  Before  beginning  the  examination  it  should  be 
established  that  no  part  of  the  slaughtered  animal  is  missing  and  that 
nothing  has  been  done  to  change  the  appearance  of  certain  parts 
(scalding  of  the  stomachs,  mesentery,  head,  feet,  etc.).  Separation 
of  the  intestines  from  the  mesentery  and  the  emptying  of  the  stomach 
and  the  intestinal  contents,  as  well  as  the  cleaning  of  these  parts, 
cannot  be  very  well  prohibited  on  account  of  their  spoiling,  unless  the 
inspector  is  present  immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  slaughter. 
On  the  other  hand,  cutting  the  mesentery  or  its  further  preparation 
is  not  permissible. 

Technique  of  Meat  Inspection. — Inspection  of  the  slaughtered  animals 
in  accordance  with  these  instructions  consists  in  the  following: 

1.  Inspection  of  all  organs  and  part 

2.  Feeling  of   certain  parts,  as  lungs,   liver,   spleen,   uterus,   udder, 
tongue. 

3.  Incision  of  lymph  glands,  the  location  of  which  is  given  on  page 
58,  in  connection  with  Figs.  21  to  33;  also  muscles,  organs  with  cavities, 
and  suspected  or  diseased  parts.     However,  this  should  be  restrained 


ANTEMORTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION 


147 


as  much  as  possible  in  tuberculosis,  suppurations,  etc.,  on  account 
of  the  danger  of  spreading  the  infective  substance  and  the  contamina- 
tion of  the  meat  with  this  material.  Suitable  knives,  with  cases,  espe- 
cially well  adapted  for  the  ambulatory  inspection/  and  which  can  be 
easily  cleansed  and  disinfected,  are  illustrated  under  Figs.  47  to  49. 
According  to  the  regulations,  the  knives  of  the  inspectors  should  be 
smooth  and  free  from  scratches  and  splits.  For  the  disinfection  of 
knives  and  their  cases  boiling  in  a  2  per  cent,  soda  solution  is  sufficient. 
4.  Squeezing  out  the  contents  of  the  passages  and  the  cavities  or 
organs  (bile  ducts  of  the  liver,  cut  surface  of  the  lungs,  etc.).  Besides, 
under  special  conditions  the  following  additional  methods  may  also 
be  applied: 

Fio.  47 


Postmortem  knife  and  case  made  from  nickel.     (After  Albrecht,  Dresden  Veterinary  High  School.) 


.">.  Reaction  test  of  muscles  with  blue  or  red  litmus  paper,  which 
after  moistening  should  be  pressed  with  a  forceps  or  knife  against  a 
fresh  cut  surface  of  the  muscles.  In  this  work  the  cuts  must  be  made 
at  various  intervals  and  in  muscles  lying  at  various  distances  apart 
(see  page  53). 

6.  Microscopic     examinations     of    blood,    muscles,  various  tissues, 
diseased  parts,  secretions  and  excretions,  parasites,  etc. 

7.  Bacteriological  examinations  of  blood,  parenchymatous  fluids,  etc., 
in  infectious  diseases. 

S.  Bacteriological  examinations  through  the  inoculation  of  culture 
media,  inoculations  of  test  animals,  etc. 

Directions  for  the  bacteriologic  examination  of  imported  meat  may 
also  be  applied  in  the  inspection  of  fresh  slaughtered  animals  in  case  of 
necessity,  and  are  described  on  page  150. 


14S     METHOD*  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION   FORCE 

Bacteriological  meat  inspection  was  first  recommended  by  Basenau  for 
cases  of  doubtful  affections,  especially  in  emergency  slaughters,  in  which  an 
unobjectionable  positive  result  cannot  be  obtained  in  any  other  way.  In  such 
inspection  bacterial  blood  intoxications  are  included  first  of  all  (see  Chapter 
VIII,  page  264),  and  a  diagnosis  even  in  these  cases  may  prove  quite  difficult. 
Basenau  himself  gives  the  following  directions:  ''It  is  practicable  to  under- 
take the  examination  twenty-four  hours  after  slaughter,  as  all  the  meat- 
poisoning  bacteria  grow  even  at  a  low  temperature,  thereby  increasing  their 


FIG.  48 


FIG.  49 


Case  for  postmortem  knives.     (After  Tempel,  of 
the  firm  Hauptner,  Berlin.) 


Postmortem  knife.      (After  Koch,  of  the  firm 
Hauptner,  Berlin.) 


numbers,  which  facilitates  the  examination.  In  this  study  it  is  presumed  that 
after  slaughter  the  stomach,  intestines,  etc.,  were  removed  in  the  usual  order. 
This  excludes  the  possibility  that  bacteria,  which  may  be  found  in  the  interior 
of  the  meat,  have  reached  that  point  through  postmortem  invasion  from  the 
intestines.  According  to  numerous  experiences  which  have  recently  been 
confirmed  by  A.  Chillees,  microorganisms  are  not  present  in  the  interior  of 
the  meat  of  healthy  animals  even  for  a  longer  time  following  slaughter.  From 
the  interior  of  the  meat,  which  is  rich  in  connective  tissue,  cover-glass  prepara- 


ANTEMORTKM   AND  rOXTMOKTKM    /XHruCTIOX  149 

tions  are  made  and  gelatin  plates  are  inoculated.  Gelatin  plates  suffice  per- 
fectly for  this  purpose,  if  Forster's  gelatin  with  a  high  melting  point  is  used. 
At  the  same  time  two  mice  are  fed  with  raw  pieces  of  the  meat  and  two  others 
are  fed  with  meat  which  has  been  exposed  to  100°  C.  for  one  hour. 

If  no  microorganisms  are  present  in  the  smear  preparations,  and  if  no 
colonies  will  develop  within  twenty-four  hours  on  the  plates,  the  meat  should 
he  released  without  any  further  action. 

If  these  preparations  or  plates  establish  the  presence  of  bacteria,  the  meat 
should  be  temporarily  held  in  a  suitable  place  and  the  results  of  the  animal 
experiments,  which,  when  positive,  appear  in  most  cases  within  three  days, 
should  be  taken  into  consideration  for  final  judgment.  Should  the  mice,  which 
were  fed  with  the  raw  meat  die,  while  those  given  the  boiled  meat  remain 
well,  it  serves  to  prove  that  the  toxic  substances  were  destroyed  by  boiling. 
Then,  in  accordance  with  present  experiences,  the  meat  can  be  released  for 
consumption  without  danger  to  human  health,  after  a  sufficient  sterilization 
in  the  steam  apparatus.  If  no  sterilizing  apparatus  is  available,  the  proof  of 
the  presence  of  a  larger  number  of  bacteria  in  the  meat  would  be  sufficient 
for  its  condemnation.  Should  the  mice  fed  with  the  boiled  material  containing 
the  bacteria  succumb,  the  meat  should  be  withheld  from  commerce  and  per- 
mission should  only  be  given  for  its  technical  utilization." 

As  a  simplification  of  Basenau's  plating  method  Ostertag  recommends 
sowing  on  slant  agar,  as  agar  tubes  can  be  carried  easily  in  a  sterile  condition. 

v.  Drigalski  recommends  surface  sowings  on  alkaline  lactose-litmus-agar  with 
particles  of  the  spleen  and  muscles  and  in  addition,  the  inoculation  of  similar 
particles  into  slightly  alkaline  nutrient  bouillon  at  22°  C.  until  the  following 
day  for  the  purpose  of  growing  the  organism,  and  afterward  inoculation  of 
new  plates  from  the  growth  in  bouillon.  If  the  growth  on  the  plates  shows  pre- 
dominantly bluish,  transparent  colonies,  a  specific  infection  of  the  concerned 
animal  (Bacillus  enteritidis,  Gartner)  is  indicated.  For  further  determinations 
test  inoculations  have  to  be  undertaken. 

9.  Chemical  examinations  may  be  necessary  for  certain  purposes 
as  testing  for  the  use  of  preservative  substances. 

10.  Examination  for  odor  is  in  many  cases  requisite.    It  is  especially 
necessary,  even  though  it  is  not  final,  in  cases  where  the  boiling  test 
has  to  be  made  for  the  examination  of  meat  for  spoiling. 

11.  The  boiling  test  is  frequently  of  great  aid  in  the  examination 
of  the  odor  and  taste  of  meat. 

This  should  always  be  made  with  chilled  meat  twenty-four  hours  after 
slaughter,  as  certain  peculiarities  of  odor  and  taste  undergo  a  change  in  cooled 
meat.  It  is  also  inadvisable  to  place  the  meat  to  be  examined  in  boiling  water, 
but  preferable  to  place  it  in  a  covered  receptacle  with  cold  water  in  which  it 
may  be  gradually  heated  to  the  boiling  point;  from  time  to  time  the  develop- 
ing steam  should  be  tested  for  the  odor.  The  taste  of  the  meat  and  the  meat 
broth  should  be  determined  after  the  meat  is  thoroughly  boiled  through.  The 
boiling  test  should  be  especially  undertaken  with  the  meat  of  boars,  cryptor- 
chids,  male  goats,  and  emergency  slaughtered  animals,  when  there  is  suspicion 
of  an  administration  of  drugs  that  may  give  a  taste  or  odor  to  the  meat,  such 
as  large  quantities  of  iodide  of  potassium  or  inhalation  of  bad-smelling  gases  and 
vapors.  There  are  pronounced  changes  in  the  odor  of  meat  when  offensive 
abscesses  are  encapsulated  in  large  body  cavities,  in  certain  forms  of  icterus 
of  hogs,  in  parasitism  of  calves,  etc. 

[Procedure  of  Meat  Inspection. — The  procedure  of  the  postmortem 
inspection  as  conducted  in  the  United  States  is  as  follows: 


150     METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION  FORCE 

At  the  first  exposure  of  the  glands  when  the  head  is  severed — these  being 
common  seats  of  tubercular  infection — a  Federal  inspector  makes  an  examina- 
tion for  evidences  of  disease,  himself  cutting  into  the  glands,  if  necessary. 
Another  inspector  stands  at  the  elbow  of  the  gutter  and,  as  the  viscera  are 
revealed,  watches  with  practised  eye  for  abnormalities,  carefully  examining 
and  handling  the  various  parts  in  order  that  any  obscure  indication  of  disease 
may  be  discovered.  The  Bureau  requires  this  inspector  to  handle  the  viscera 
and,  if  necessary,  to  cut  into  them.  This  is  rapid  as  well  as  exacting  work,  and 
the  head  and  visceral  inspectors  frequently  exchange  places,  or  the  visceral 
inspector  is  relieved  by  another,  after  two  hours'  work. 

When  the  inspector  finds  a  diseased  carcass  he  attaches  to  it,  by  means  of 
a  wire  and  seal,  a  paper  tag  with  the  words  "  U.  S.  Retained"  on  it  and  numbered 
to  correspond  with  the  number  on  the  stub  from  which  it  is  taken.  He  sends 
the  numbered  stub  to  the  office  with  his  report.  The  carcass,  with  the  parts 
that  have  been  separated,  none  of  which  is  allowed  to  lose  its  identity,  is  now 
sent  directly  to  a  compartment  called  the  "  retaining  room."  The  Govern- 
ment requires  this  important  room  to  be  rat  proof,  well  lighted,  to  have  floors 
of  cement,  or  of  metal  or  brick  laid  in  cement,  and  to  be  provided  with  facilities 
for  locking.  The  Government  also  provides  a  special  lock  for  the  room,  and 
the  keys  remain  in  the  custody  of  the  inspector.  At  convenient  periods  the 
retained  carcasses  undergo  in  this  room  at  the  hands  of  other  inspectors  a  more 
leisurely  and  careful  inspection. 

This  is  the  final  step  in  the  postmortem  examination.  The  inspectors  here 
have  a  good  deal  of  personal  discretion.  Certain  definite  rules  are  laid  down 
by  the  Bureau,  but  something  must  be  left  to  the  judgment  of  the  inspectors. 
They  must  pass  upon  the  question  of  the  extent  of  the  affection  and  decide 
whether  or  not  the  whole  carcass  or  only  parts  of  it  should  go  to  the  tank. 
Not  being  pushed  by  the  exigencies  of  the  rapid  work  on  the  killing  beds  and 
the  necessity  of  keeping  up  with  the  never-ending  stream  of  carcasses,  they 
are  deliberate  and  careful  in  making  their  examinations  and  in  forming  their 
judgment.  Carcasses  which  they  decide  to  be  fit  for  food  they  permit  to  be 
removed  and  placed  with  other  healthy  carcasses,  which  have  been  passed  on 
the  first  inspection.  They  take  off  the  "U.  S.  Retained"  tag,  return  it  with 
their  report  to  the  office,  and  stamp  it  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed." 

When  their  examination  confirms  the  suspicious  indications  of  the  first 
examination,  however,  they  stamp  conspicuously  on  the  carcass,  also  on  the 
tag,  the  words  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned."  The  carcass  is  removed 
immediately  from  the  retaining  room  under  the  eye  of  a  Government  employee, 
and  goes  either  to  the  tank  or,  if  it  is  not  convenient  to  tank  it  immediately, 
to  the  condemned-meat  room,  which,  like  the  retaining  room,  is  provided  with 
a  lock,  the  key  of  which  is  kept  by  a  Government  employee,  and  which  is  opened 
only  by  Government  employees.  As  soon  as  practicable  Government  men 
remove  the  carcass  to  the  tank,  keeping  a  record  of  the  tag  numbers,  which 
they  forward  with  their  reports  to  the  office.  At  houses  which  do  not  provide 
a  "  condemned  room,"  the  carcass  is  sent  directly  to  the  tank.  About  25  per 
cent,  of  the  carcasses  retained  are  condemned. 

All  carcasses,  both  fit  and  unfit,  having  been  removed  from  the  retaining 
room,  the  floor  and  walls  are  washed  with  hot  water  and  disinfected  in  order 
that  the  room  may  be  clean  and  free  from  disease  infection  for  the  reception 
of  the  next  batch  of  retained  carcasses.] 

In  the  performances  of  meat  inspection  it  is  advisable  to  maintain 
the  following  method  of  procedure  in  the  inspection  of  the  various 
species  of  animals: 

CATTLE. —  The  (Suitably  Prepared)  Head. — Viewing,  cutting  the 
lymph  glands  (retropharyngeal,  submaxillary,  parotid  lymph  glands), 
and  tonsils  in  sections.  Viewing  and  feeling  of  the  tongue,  applying 


ANTEMORTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION  151 

extensive  cuts  to  the  muscles  of  mastication  on  both  sides  (beginning 
at  the  maxillary  border  and  running  parallel  with  the  branches  of  the 
inferior  maxilla.) 

Viscera  of  the  Thoracic  Cavity. — 1.  Lungs:  Viewing  and  palpating. 
Cutting  the  lymph  glands  in  sections  (right  and  left  bronchial  glands, 
also  the  mediastinal  glands)  [the  anterior  mediastinal  glands  are  hang- 
ing, as  a  rule,  near  the  thoracic  entrance  on  the  fore-quarter],  and  a 
cross-section  through  each  lobe  of  the  lungs  at  about  the  last  third, 
extending  to  the  larger  bronchial  tubes.  In  cutting  the  bronchial 
gland  it  is  also  advisable  to  cut  into  the  principal  bronchi  (look  for 
evidence  of  aspiration  of  the  contents  of  the  stomach). 

2.  Heart:  Opening  of  the  pericardium;  viewing  and  opening  of 
both  ventricles  by  a  longitudinal  cut  which  should  extend  through 
the  septum. 

Viscera  of  the  Abdominal  and  Pelvic  Cavity. — 1 .  Stomach,  mesentery 
omentum,  with  small  and  large  intestines.  Viewing  and  cutting  their 
lymph  glands. 

2.  Liver:     Viewing  of  both  surfaces,  feeling  and  cutting  the  lymph 
glands  lying  around  the  portal  ring;  cross-section  through  the  larger 
bile  ducts,  on  the  gastric  surface  and  in  the  Spigelian  lobe. 

3.  Spleen:     Palpation  and  cutting  for  the  examination  of  the  pulp. 

4.  Urinary  bladder:    Viewing  and  cutting  only  if  it  shows  a  diseased 
condition. 

5.  Uterus   with   vagina   and   vulva:     Viewing   and   cutting   trans- 
versely through   both  horns   of  the   uterus,   and   also   longitudinally, 
if  necessary. 

0.  Udder:  Feeling,  viewing,  and  cutting  the  organ  according  to 
necessity;  cutting  of  the  lymph  glands,  which  occasionally  remain 
attached  to  the  hind-quarter. 

In  male  cattle,  the  testicles  with  the  penis  and  the  accessory  sexual 
lymph  glands  are  to  be  viewed  instead  of  the  organs  mentioned  in 
5  and  6. 

The  Carcass  Proper. — 1.  In  every  case  viewing  of  the  serous  cover- 
ings of  the  large  body  cavities,  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  accessible  meat 
and  bones,  the  kidneys  loosened  from  their  fat  envelope,  and  the 
surfaces  of  the  meat  quarters;  in  addition  the  kidney  lymph  glands 
should  be  cut. 

2.  In  suspicious  cases,  especially  in  emergency  slaughter  and  in 
tuberculosis  with  extension  through  the  systemic  circulation,  namely, 
the  portal  and  pulmonary  circulation,  or  the  occurrence  of  extensively 
softened  areas  or  in  pronounced  affections  of  the  serous  membranes, 
and  of  the  uterus,  the  carcass  should  be  cut  into: 

(a)  The  body  wall   lymph   glands;   inferior  cervical   lymph   glands 
(including  also  the  anterior  mediastinal  glands),  lymph  glands  of  the 
superior  and  inferior  thoracic  walls,  lumbar,  internal  iliac,  and  external 
ischial  lymph  glands. 

(b)  The  body  lymph  glands  proper;  prescapular,  axillary,  external 
iliac,  popliteal,  and  superficial  inguinal  lymph  glands. 


152      .17 A' 77/0 AS  OF   I'KOCEDl'ltK  OF    THE   IXM'ECT/ON   FORCE 

CALF. — Inspection  of  the  viscera,  thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities, 
as  in  cattle,  omitting  the  cutting  of  bile  ducts.  It  is  necessary  to 
consider  especially  the  umbilical  vein.  The  kidneys  should  only  be 
loosened  from  the  fat  capsule  in  suspicious  cases. 

Special  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  navel  and  to  the  joints  of 
the  carcass,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  only  partially  skinned.  Extensive 
lymph  gland  examinations  under  such  conditions  as  were  given  for 
cattle  should  be  carried  out  in  the  same  manner.  An  inspection  for 
measles  (cutting  into  the  heart  and  muscles  of  mastication,  examina- 
tion of  the  tongue)  should  only  take  place  in  calves  over  six  weeks 
of  age,  except  in  suspicious  cases;  likewise  the  lymph  glands  of  the 
head  should  be  cut  only  in  cases  of  suspicion. 

SHEEP  AND  GOAT. — The  examination  is  conducted  the  same  as  in 
calves.  The  cutting  of  the  heart,  head,  and  pulmonary  lymph  glands 
is  only  undertaken  in  cases  of  suspicion.  Likewise  an  inspection  of 
the  body  lymph  glands  should  be  made  only  under  those  conditions 
which  apply  for  cattle. 

HOG. — Before  the  inspection,  the  vertebral  column  must  be  split 
and  the  abdominal  fat  (leaf  lard)  must  be  separated  from  the  abdominal 
muscles. 

Pluck  (Haslets). — Viewing  the  tongue  and  the  muscles  on  the  inferior 
surface,  the  muscles  of  the  larynx  and  of  the  heart  and  cutting  into 
the  latter.  Lungs  (cross-section  through  the  posterior  portion) :  Incis- 
ing the  bronchial  lymph  glands.  Liver:  Viewing,  palpating,  cutting 
the  lymph  glands  (for  the  absent  mediastinal  glands,  examine  the 
middle  bronchial  gland  at  the  bifurcation  of  the  trachea;  the  portal 
glands,  as  a  rule,  are  attached  to  the  mesentery  near  the  pancreas). 

Mesentery  with  stomach,  intestines,  spleen,  omentum,  urinary 
bladder,  and  uterus.  Viewing,  palpating,  cutting  the  gastric  (and 
if  present,  the  attached  portal)  lymph  glands,  also  the  mesenteric 
lymph  glands  of  the  small  and  large  intestines. 

The  Carcass. — 1.  In  every  case  view  the  serous  linings  of  the  body 
cavities,  the  accessible  parts,  and  cut  surfaces  of  the  meat,  bones,  and 
surface  of  the  skin;  incise  the  submaxillary  and  the  superior  cervical 
lymph  glands. 

2.  In  a  suspicious  case  (under  conditions  as  applied  to  cattle), 
incise  the  superior,  middle,  and  inferior  cervical  lymph  glands,  internal 
iliac  and  external  ischial  lymph  glands,  the  prescapular,  external 
iliac,  popliteal,  and  superficial  inguinal  glands.  The  external  ischial 
lymph  glands  lie,  as  a  rule,  superficially,  but  they  are  also  frequently 
detached  from  the  pelvic  wall,  on  the  rectum;  the  lymph  glands  of  the 
inferior  thoracic  wall  are  generally  absent,  those  of  the  superior  thoracic 
wall  are  frequently  cut  off  with  portions  of  the  aorta,  in  the  evisceration 
of  the  pluck;  as  a  rule,  the  axillary  lymph  glands  are  also  absent. 

At  the  request  of  the  owner,  and  if  there  is  no  reason  for  suspicion, 
the  splitting  of  the  vertebral  column  may  be  waived,  and  this  is  also 
omitted  in  suckling  pigs. 

HORSE. — The  inspection  is  carried  out  practically  as  in  cattle,  but 
a  thorough  examination  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  should  be 


ANTKMOKTKM    AM)  rOHTMOHTKM    IXM'KCTION  153 

made,  the  head  must  be  split  longitudinally,  and  the  septum  uasi 
should  be  taken  out  in  every  case. 

I)o(;s. — On  dogs  the  inspection  is  followed  in  the  same  manner 
as  has  been  described  for  small  stock. 

Inspection  of  Meat  in  Emergency  Slaughter. — In  emergency  slaughter 
the  inspection  must  be  carried  out  with  special  care,  and  particularly 
where  special  instructions  have  been  given  to  the  inspectors  by  the 
governments  of  the  various  allied  states.  For  instance,  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony,  in  19()(),  enacted  the  following: 

"In  an  emergency  slaughter  the  inspector  should  be  especially  careful  about 
the  presence  of  all  the  organs,  and  should  there  be  the  slightest  suspicion  after 
the  first  inspection  as  to  the  wholesomeness  of  the  meat  for  human  consump- 
tion he  should  undertake  a  second  inspection  on  the  slaughtered  animal.  If 
blood  poisoning  is  suspected  it  is  especially  necessary  to  ascertain  whether 
early  changes  will  appear  in  connection  with  the  keeping  quality,  color,  and 
odor  of  the  meat;  in  addition,  a  boiling  test  should  also  be  undertaken  with 
the  meat.  A  repetition  of  the  inspection  is  always  necessary  if  for  an  excep- 
tional cause  the  inspection  was  made  by  artificial  light.  It  must  be  apparent, 
however,  that  the  second  inspection  should  not  be  delayed  too  long,  thus 
permitting  the  questionable  meat  to  become  affected  by  putrefactive  changes. 
Therefore,  in  summer  the  second  inspection  should  never  take  place  later  than 
twenty-four  hours  after  the  slaughter." 

FIG.  50 


Transverse  section  through  the  neck  of  a  bull. 

Determination  of  Age. — Indications  of  age  of  the  slaughtered  animals 
were  mentioned  on  page  33. 

Determination  of  Sex. — The  determination  of  the  sex  in  the  dressed 
animals  may  ensue  from  the  following  indications: 

(Battle. — The  bulls  are  conspicuous  by  their  strong  development 
of  the  muscles,  especially  on  the  withers  (Fig.  50)  and  shoulders,  as 
well  as  by  their  compact  development  in  general.  The  color  of  the 
meat  is  in  general  darker  (see  page  74),  and  the  quantity  of  fat  is 
smaller  than  in  steers  and  cows.  On  the  hind-quarters  the  following 
characteristics  are  to  be  noted  (Fig.  51):  The  opened  inguinal  canal, 
the  small  quantity  of  scrotal  fat,  the  triangular  or  irregular  rhomboidal- 
shaped  cut  section  of  the  gracilis  muscles,  the  place  of  attachment 
of  which  on  the  ischial  portion  of  the  pelvic  floor  is,  as  a  rule,  covered 
with  fascia  and  fat  tissue;  on  the  ischial  notch  there  generally  remains 
a  large  portion  of  the  bulbocavernosus  muscle,  sometimes  with  adhering 


154     METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION  FORCE 


FIG.  51 


parts  of  the  corpora  cavernosa  of  the  penis;  the  striking  angularity  of 
the  pelvic  floor  with  the  strongly  developed  tuberculum  pubicum,  and 

the  slightly  developed  fat  cap- 
sule of  the  kidneys.  Sometimes 
the  channel  of  the  penis  can  be 
followed  in  the  fat  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  thigh  and  the  ab- 
dominal wall. 

In  steers  the  development  of 
the  body  is  not  as  compact,  and 
especially  the  muscles  of  the  neck 
and  withers  are  not  as  well  devel- 
oped (Fig.  52);  the  color  of  the 
muscles  is  also  lighter  (see  page 
74)  than  in  the  bull;  the  develop- 
ment of  fat  is  always  greater,  the 
inguinal  canal  is  closed,  and  the 
scrotal  region  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  fat  (cod  fat).  Cows 
are  characterized  by  a  more 
slender,  finer  development  of  the 
body;  the  muscles  are  not  as 
well  developed  and  their  color  is 
lighter  (see  page  74,  Fig.  53); 
the  color  of  the  fat  is  sometimes 
conspicuously  yellow;  on  the 
hind-quarter  the  large  loose  udder 
is  noticeable;  after  being  cut  away 
it  leaves  a  defect  in  the  posterior 
abdominal  region;  the  cut  surface 
of  the  gracilis  muscle  is  bean  or 

CrCSCent-shaped  and  readies  to 
the  ischial  notch;  tllC  floor  of 
the  j^  appears  onjy  sHghtlv 

*  i  L  i 

angular    OF     arched  J      the     tllbCF- 


Median  side  of  the  right  hind-quarter  of  a  bull  ;  a, 
cut  surf  ace  of  the  muse,  gracilis;  6,  external  inguinal 
ring;  c  scrotal  fat  tissue;  d,  part  of  the  muse. 
bulbocavernosus  (represented  somewhat  enlarged)  ; 
«,  tuberculum  pubicum;  /,  fat  capsule  of  the  kidney. 


FIG.  52 


Transverse  section  through  the  neck  of  a  steer. 


(llS- 


culum  pubicum  is  not  well  developed  (Fig.  54).    Heifers  may  be 
tinguished  from  the  cows  by  their  slightly  developed  milkless  udder 
which  in  well-fattened  animals  is  considerably  intermixed  with  fat. 


ANTEMORTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION 


155 


Calces.—  Bull   calves   are   easily   recognized   by   the   small   testicles, 
the  openings  in  the  inguinal  canal,  the  stump  of  the  penis,  etc.,  and 


FIG.  53 


Transverse  section  through  the  neck  of  a  cow. 


FIG.  54 


by  the  ischial  notch,  while  heifer 
calves  are  recognized  by  the  presence 
of  the  udder. 

Calves  in  the  skin.  In  bull  calves 
the  scrotum  and  the  brush  (a  tuft  of 
long  hairs  at  the  orifice  of  the  sheath) 
are  present.  In  heifer  calves  the 
teats,  which  are  present  in  both  sexes, 
are  better  developed. 

Sheep  and  Goats. — The  distinguish- 
ing of  rams  from  wethers  and  ewes 
has  to  be  followed  by  the  same  indi- 
cation as  in  cattle.  In  bucks  the 
peculiar  sexual  odor  is  conspicuous 
(see  Chapter  VII,  page  194). 

Hogs. — In  boars,  besides  the  small 
deposits  of  fat  there  is  strikingly 
noticeable  the  dark  color  of  the 
muscles,  the  thickness  of  the  skin 
on  the  neck  and  shoulders,  as  well  as 
the  strong  sexual  odor  (see  Chapter 
VI I ,  page  194) .  If  the  testicles  with 
the  scrotum  have  been  cut  out,  the 
large  skin  defect  becomes  conspicu- 
ous. The  remaining  parts  of  the  penis 
and  the  bulbocavernosus  muscle,  the 
channel  of  the  penis,  and  the  cut  sur- 
face of  the  gracilis  muscles  (Fig.  55) 
appear  in  a  condition  similar  to  bulls. 
The  opening  cut  of  the  abdomen 
shows  in  the  navel  region  on  both 
sides,  or  more  to  one  side  a  defect 
as  a  result  of  a  cutting  out  of  the 

navel  sac.  Cryptorchid  boars  may  appear  according  to  the  functional 
ability  of  the  testicles  more  or  less  as  boars  or  castrated  animals;  this 
also  applies  to  the  so-called  stags  (page  20). 


Median  side  of  a  right  hind-quarter  of  a 
cow:  a,  cut  surface  of  the  muse,  gracilis;  b, 
udder;  c,  tuberculum  pubicum;  d,  fat  capsule 
of  the  kidney. 


15()      METHODS   OF   PROCKDVRK  OF    THK   IXHPECTION   FORCE 

The  sexual  characteristics  of  the  slaughtered  castrated  male  hogs 
are  in  general  almost  identical  with  those  of  boars ;  however,  the  castra- 
tion scars  (Fig.  55,  ri)  are  noticeable  on  the  posterior  contour  of  the 
leg,  and  the  development  of  the  body  resembles  very  much  that  of 
the  female  hogs. 

In  female  hogs  the  pelvis  appears  wider,  and  the  posterior  pelvic 
notch  larger  than  in  male  animals;  the  cut  surface  of  the  gracilis  muscle 
is  bean-shaped;  on  the  opening  cut  of  the  abdomen  the  place  of  the 


FIG.  55 


FIG.  56 


Right  hind-quarter  of  a  castrated  male  hog: 
1,  ischiopubic  symphysis;  2,  first  sacral  vertebra; 
m,  muse,  bulbocavernosus  enclosing  a  portion  of 
the  corpus  cavernosum  of  the  penis;  n,  castration 
scar;  r,  groove  of  the  penis  in  the  fat  tissue. 


Right  hind-quarter  of  a  female  hog.  Here 
comes  into  consideration  the  bean-shaped 
cross-section  of  the  muse,  gracilis  lying  distally 
(in  the  picture  above)  from  the  ischiopubic 
symphysis. 


excision  of  the  navel  is  not  present;  the  development  of  the  udder  and 
teats  depends  on  the  number  of  times  the  animals  have  suckled  young. 
In  female  hogs  which  have  been  spayed,  scars  of  the  operation  are 
visible  on  the  left  flank. 

Horses. — The  sex  of  the  dressed  horses  may  be  determined  by  the 
same  characteristics  as  were  described  for  cattle.  In  stallions  the  fat 
is  generally  of  a  lighter  color  and  almost  white,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  intensely  yellow  fat  of  geldings  and  mares. 

Dogs. — Concerning  the  characteristics  of  the  sexes  of  slaughtered 
dogs,  nothing  particular  can  be  said. 

Judgment  of  Slaughtered  Animals. — For  the  judgment  of  slaughtered 
animals  after  inspection  is  accomplished,  the  points  outlined  on  page 
171  should  be  considered. 


ANTE  MORTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION  157 

Stamping  of  Meat. — Regarding  the  stamping  of  meat  after  inspec- 
tion is  made,  see  page  172. 

Inspection  of  Imported  Meat. — Meat  from  Foreign  Countries. — The 
inauguration  of  a  general  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection 
on  animals  slaughtered  within  the  German  Empire  makes  it  naturally 
essential  to  subject  imported  fresh  and  prepared  meats  to  a  careful 
inspection  and  strict  judgment.  For  this  purpose  exact  directions 
were  issued  in  the  regulations  in  connection  with  the  imperial  meat- 
inspection  law,  which  also  include  the  chemical  examination  of  such 
meat.  As  the  judgment  of  diseased  imported  meat  sometimes  varies 
from  the  disposition  to  be  taken  of  native  meat,  it  is  advisable  to  con- 
sider carefully  the  regulations  in  every  case  of  condemnation. 

Importations  of  foreign  meat,  of  contaminated  meat,  sausages,  and 
other  mixtures  in  air-tight  cans  or  similar  containers,  into  Germany 
have  been  prohibited  since  October  1,  1900  (see  also  page  94). 

The  relative  sizes  of  imported  fresh  and  prepared  pieces  of  foreign 
meat  were  temporarily  established  up  to  December  1,  1903,  and  as 
there  have  been  no  new  regulations  made  to  govern  these  relations, 
the  last  established  conditions  of  importations  remain  in  effect  until 
further  amendments  are  issued.  The  shipment  of  foreign  meats  to 
Germany  is  limited  to  certain  places  of  entry,  named  in  connection 
with  the  inspection  stations  in  the  regulations  of  the  Federal  Council. 

Regarding  the  designation  of  imported  salted  intestines  (casings),  Groning  dis- 
tinguishes 5  parts  in  the  intestines  of  cattle:  "  Wreath  intestines"  (small  intes- 
tines), "cap"  (cecum),  "butt"  (cecum,  with  the  orifice  of  the  ileum  and  a  small 
portion  of  the  colon),  "middle  intestines"  (colon),  and  "fat  end"  (rectum). 
Every  bundle  of  intestines  has,  in  accordance  to  its  origin  from  the  various 
countries,  a  certain  length,  or  it  contains  a  certain  number  of  intestines.  A 
bundle  of  "wreath"  intestines  is  24  to  32;  a  bundle  of  "middle"  intestines  is 
generally  18  m.  long.  So-called  nodular  intestines  (Chapter  VII)  [see  B.  A.  I. 
Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  32]  are  frequently  packed  separately  as 
inferior  in  quality.  These  bundles  are  longer;  and,  therefore,  a  barrel  packed 
with  them  contains,  as  a  rule,  about  180  bundles,  while  of  the  good  quality, 
over  200  bundles  are  contained  in  each  barrel. 

The  following  distinctions  between  salted  horse  intestines  from  cattle  intes- 
tines are  noted  by  Wentzel:  The  "middle"  intestines  of  cattle  run  in  a  straight 
line,  while  those  of  the  horse  are  curved  because  the  wall  to  which  the  mesentery 
is  attached  is  shorter  than  that  of  the  opposite  side.  Furthermore,  the  external 
surface  of  the  small  intestines  of  the  horse  (that  is,  the  mucous  membrane 
turned  out)  cannot  be  thoroughly  and  readily  separated,  as  a  result  of  the 
firmer  consistence  of  the  submucosa  and  the  small  quantity  of  fat  it  contains. 
Usually,  larger  shreds  of  the  mucous  membrane  remain  attached  to  the  intes- 
tines of  the  horse  and  give  them  a  brown  appearance.  On  the  small  intestines 
of  the  horse  the  place  of  attachment  of  the  mesentery  is  conspicuous,  but  this 
cannot  be  .noticed  on  the  middle  portion  of  the  intestines  in  cattle.  In  inflating 
the  small  intestines  of  the  horse  with  air  they  will  arrange  themselves  in  coils, 
while  those  of  cattle  will  run  straight.  If  inflated,  the  walls  of  the  intestines 
of  cattle  show  an  interweaving  with  fat  tissue  in  all  directions,  which  is  absent 
in  the  intestines  of  the  horse. 

[The  importation  of  meat  and  meat  products  into  the  United  States 
is  subject  to  Regulation  32,  Section  II,  of  the  Rules  and  Regulations 


158      METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE   INSPECTION  FORCE 

for  the  enforcement  of  the  "Food  and  Drugs  Act/'  which  is  determined 
in  the  following: 

Regulation  32.  Imported  Food  and  Drug  Products  (Section  II). — (a)  Meat 
and  meat-food  products  imported  into  the  United  States  shall  be  accompanied 
by  a  certificate  of  official  inspection  of  a  character  to  satisfy  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  that  they  are  not  dangerous  to  health,  and  each  package  of 
such  articles  shall  bear  a  label  which  shall  identify  it  as  covered  by  the  certificate, 
which  certificate  shall  accompany  or  be  attached  to  the  invoice  on  which  entry 
is  made. 

(6)  The  certificate  shall  set  forth  the  official  position  of  the  inspector  and 
the  character  of  the  inspection. 

(c)  Meat  and  meat-food  products  as  well  as  all  other  food  and  drug  products 
of  a  kind  forbidden  entry  into  or  forbidden  to  be  sold,  or  restricted  in  sale  in 
the.  country  in  which  made  or  from  which  exported,  will  be  refused  admission. 

(d)  Meat  and  meat-food  products  which  have  been  inspected  and  passed 
through  the  customs  may,  if  identity  is  retained,  be  transported  in  interstate 
commerce.] 

Domestic  Meat. — As  a  result  of  uniform  regulation  of  meat  inspec- 
tion in  the  entire  German  Empire,  the  reinspection  of  meat  shipped 
from  one  place  to  another,  no  longer  appears  as  necessary  as  formerly; 
nevertheless,  control  of  such  introduced  meat  appears  desirable,  espe- 
cially when  there  are  extensive  shipments  to  a  certain  locality.  In 
order  to  make  this  control  effective,  it  appears  necessary  that  the  meat 
should  originate  from  regularly  inspected  food  animals,  and  should 
comply  with  all  the  general  requirements  which  are  demanded  of 
marketed  meat  in  the  respective  localities.  A  supervision  of  shipped 
meat  is  also  necessary  on  account  of  the  manifold  changes  to  which 
it  is  exposed  (putrefaction,  spoiling,  etc.).  The  need  of  inspection  for 
meat  snipped  to  places  having  public  abattoirs  and  a  strict  veterinary 
inspection  appears  also  essential,  as  otherwise  some  of  the  butchers 
would  prefer  to  slaughter  their  animals  in  neighboring  towns  with  less 
rigid  inspection  and  probably  smaller  expense.  Such  procedure  would 
threaten  not  alone  the  management  of  the  public  abattoirs,  but  would 
also  considerably  diminish  their  revenues.  It  was,  therefore,  deter- 
mined that  the  right  of  the  various  states  in  Germany  may  be  further 
exercised  regarding  the  reinspection  of  meats  shipped  to  localities  in 
which  public  abattoirs  are  maintained  and  through  authorized  regula- 
tions, such  meat  would  be  subject  to  a  compulsory  reinspection.  An 
exception  was  made  for  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  by  the  law  of  June 
28, 1902,  in  connection  with  the  law  of  September  23, 1904,  whereby  the 
authority  of  the  towns,  even  if  they  had  public  abattoirs,  was  revoked, 
so  that  meat  shipped  to  such  localities  and  which  was  officially  inspected 
by  a  veterinarian,  need  not  be  subjected  to  a  compulsory  reinspection. 
[See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  19,  Section  1  to  5.] 

In  localities  to  which  extensive  shipping  of  meat  takes  place  the 
establishment  of  an  inspection  office  appears  very  essential.  Its 
equipment  should  include  everything  necessary  for  a  thorough  expert 
inspection  of  the  meat,  such  as  arrangements  for  hanging  up  the  meat, 
inspection  tables,  good  light,  microscopes  and  reagents,  stamping 


ANTEMORTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM   INSPECTION  159 

apparatus,  etc.  Veterinarians  alone  should  be  employed  as  experts. 
The  time  for  inspection  should  be  restricted  as  far  as  possible  to  day- 
light hours  unless  there  is  a  very  good  artificial  light  (electric  light, 
glowing  gas  light,  acetylene  light).  Where  the  quantity  of  fresh  meat 
is  inconsiderable,  it  may  be  inspected  on  the  premises  of  the  consignee, 
or  may  be  brought  directly  to  the  inspector,  who,  however,  in  all  cases 
should  be  a  veterinarian.  The  inspection  of  prepared  meat  or  meat 
products  may  be  undertaken  by  lay  meat  inspectors,  since  the  meat  of 
these  products  has  been  previously  subjected  to  veterinary  examination. 

The  method  adopted  in  the  veterinary  inspection  of  meat  imported 
from  foreign  countries  may  serve  as  guidance  in  the  examination  of 
fresh  and  prepared  domestic  meat  brought  in  from  other  localities. 

Should  a  chemical  examination  of  such  meat  be  necessary,  the 
directions  for  the  chemical  examination  of  meats  and  fats  give  the 
necessary  information. 

An  examination  for  trichinse,  where  such  is  maintained,  should 
always  be  undertaken  on  pork  shipped  from  other  localities,  if  the 
meat  originates  from  localities  which  do  not  conduct  regulated  trichinse 
examinations;  or  if  the  pieces  of  pork  or  carcasses  are  not  marked  or 
otherwise  designated  to  show  that  the  respective  animals  were  examined 
by  an  authorized  trichina?  examiner  and  found  free  of  that  affection. 
The  procedure  of  trichinse  examination  may  be  carried  out  in  accord- 
ance with  the  directions  for  the  examination  of  meat  for  trichinse  and 
measles,  as  given  in  the  regulations  to  the  meat-inspection  law. 

The  judging  of  imported  foreign  meat  must  be  carried  out  in  accord- 
ance with  the  regulations  to  the  meat-inspection  law.  For  native 
meat  such  regulations  are  authorized  as  exist  at  the  destination,  in 
connection  with  the  state  police  instructions  for  those  places. 

Inspection  for  Trichinse. — Trichinosis  in  hogs  and  dogs  (see  Chapter 
VII,  page  254)  requires  a  microscopic  examination  of  the  muscles  of 
these  animals  for  the  determination  of  trichinse. 

The  authorized  regulation  of  this  examination — the  trichina?  inspection — is, 
according  to  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law,  left  to  the  State  governments. 
It  has  already  been  made  obligatory  and  inaugurated  in  North  Germany  through 
Stale  government  police  regulations;  while  in  States  of  South  Germany  it  is 
carried  out  only  exceptionally,  and  almost  exclusively  in  some  of  the  larger 
cities. 

[Formerly  in  the  United  States  trichinse  inspection  was  maintained 
only  for  export  pork.  This,  however,  has  also  been  abandoned,  as 
it  was  found  that  some  of  the  foreign  governments  were  not  giving 
any  attention  to  the  certificates.  Quite  adequate  reasons  for  not 
maintaining  a  trichinse  examination  in  the  United  States  are  given 
by  Dr.  A.  1).  Melvin  in  his  work  on  the  "Federal  Meat  Inspection 
Service"  (B.  A.  I.  Circular  125,  page  35),  which  is  quoted  in  the 
following: 

"While  the  Federal  meat  inspection  in  this  country  is  as  thorough  as  a  com- 
prehensive law,  stringent  regulations,  and  a  liberal  appropriation  of  money 


100     METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION   FORCE 

can  make  it,  and  the  consumer  of  meats  bearing  the  stamp  'U.  S.  Inspected 
and  Passed'  may  in  general  have  the  comfortable  assurance  that  he  is  buying 
and  eating  products  from  healthy  animals  prepared  under  clean  and  sanitary 
conditions,  and  the  danger  of  contracting  disease  from  eating  these  meats  is 
practically  eliminated,  yet  the  fact  should  not  be  overlooked  that  there  is  one 
disease  against  which  the  meat  inspection  legend  does  not  pretend  to  be  a  safe- 
guard. For  the  detection  of  most  of  the  diseases  affecting  meat  the  human 
eye  needs  no  assistance.  The  disease  called  trichinosis,  however,  to  which  hogs 
are  subject,  is  caused  by  a  parasite  so  small  that  the  microscope  must  be  em- 
ployed to  detect  it.  Thorough  curing  or  thorough  cooking  of  the  meat  kills 
this  parasite.  It  seems,  however,  that  some  European  peoples  have  a  habit 
of  eating  raw  or  half-raw  pork,  and  consequently  they  have  suffered  from  this 
disease.  Very  elaborate  measures  have  been  taken  in  some  countries  to  do 
away  with  or  to  lessen  the  danger.  In  Germany,  for  instance,  there  is  an  army 
of  inspectors  who  use  the  microscope  to  detect  these  parasites  in  pork.  These 
countries  some  years  ago  forbade  the  importation  of  American  pork  products 
unless  they  had  been  microscopically  inspected.  To  meet  this  requirement 
the  Bureau  instituted  several  years  ago  a  system  of  microscopic  inspection  of 
pork  intended  for  shipment  to  such  countries.  No  microscopic  inspection  of 
pork  intended  for  home  consumption,  however,  has  ever  been  made  or  even 
contemplated.  The  Department  takes  the  ground  that  from  the  nature  of  the 
disease  an  examination  of  certain  parts  of  a  hog  carcass  can  only  minimize 
and  not  eliminate  the  danger. 

The  parasites,  it  is  true,  are  usually  found,  if  found  at  all,  in  certain  parts, 
as  the  pillar  of  the  diaphragm,  the  psoas  muscle,  the  inner  aspect  of  the  shoulder, 
or  the  base  of  the  tongue.  Not  finding  them  in  these  parts  by  the  usual  methods, 
it  may  be  assumed  to  be  probable  that  they  do  not  exist  in  the  remainder  of 
the  carcass.  This  is,  however,  only  a  probability,  as  they  may  exist,  and  even 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  produce  disease  if  the  flesh  is  eaten  raw.  Many  cases 
are  on  record  where  twenty,  even  thirty,  examinations  were  made  before  trichina? 
were  found;  and  out  of  6329  cases  of  trichinosis  in  Germany,  between  1881 
and  1898,  a  careful  inquiry  traced  2042  cases  (over  32  per  cent.)  to  meat  which 
had  been  microscopically  examined  and  passed  as  free  from  trichinae.  In 
view  of  these  facts  the  Department  has  regarded  it  as  utterly  impracticable 
to  inspect  hog  carcasses  for  this  disease.  It  has  further  taken  the  view  that  such 
inspection — which  as  formerly  carried  on  for  exported  products  would  cost 
about  $3,700,000  a  year  if  all  hogs  killed  at  inspected  houses  were  so  examined 
— would  do  more  harm  than  good.  It  would  create  in  the  minds  of  the  con- 
sumers a  feeling  of  false  security,  which  might  lead  them  to  omit  the  only  sure 
means  of  escaping  danger,  namely,  to  refrain  from  eating  uncooked  or  uncured 
pork;  and  it  would  thus  defeat  its  very  purpose  and  render  the  great  trouble 
and  expense  worse  than  useless."] 

Trichina  Inspection  Association. — To  facilitate  the  meat  traffic  between 
the  governments  of  Prussia  (with  the  exception  of  the  Hohenzollern  country), 
an  agreement  was  accepted  that  all  meat  from  hogs  which  originate  inside  of 
the  territories  of  the  participating  states,  and  which  is  shipped  from  one  of  these 
states,  is  considered  as  inspected  for  trichina?,  as  the  requirements  for  inspection 
are  in  all  of  these  states  practically  the  same. 

The  execution  of  trichina  inspection  on  fresh  or  prepared  meats,  may  be 
assigned  to  special  trichina  examiners,  and  should  be  carried  out  in  accordance 
with  the  directions  of  the  law.  Outside  the  public  abattoirs  it  is  desirable 
to  have  the  meat  and  trichina  inspection  in  hogs  performed  by  one  and  the  same 
person  in  order  that  one  or  the  other  inspection  should  not  be  omitted.  For 
details  in  inspection,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  authorized  directions  as 
well  as  to  the  numerous  special  publications  on  trichina  inspection.1 

1  For  instance:  Johnc,  The  Trichina  Examiner,  Berlin,  1<>()4.  9th  edition;  I.ong-Preusse.  Practical 
Guide  for  Trichina  Inspection,  Berlin,  1905,  (>th  edition,  and  others. 


.\\TKMOKTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION 


161 


Compressors  are  now  generally  adopted  in  preparing  squeeze  preparations. 
Fig.  57  represents  a  very  commonly  used  compressor  divided  into  24  parts; 
Figs.  58  and  59  represent  a  practical  American  compressor  which,  however. 
is  not  divided  into  fields;  it  is  shown  in  both  open  and  closed  condition. 


FIG.  57 


Compressor,  the  upper  plate  of  which  may  be  drawn  out.      (Hauptner,  Berlin.) 

Numerous  so-called  trichina  microscopes  are  constructed  for  the  easy  micro- 
scopic examination  of  prepared  squeeze  preparations.  Projection  apparatuses 
are  also  employed  in  larger  abattoirs  and  inspection  bureaus  under  the  designa- 
tion of  trichina  scopes,  which  serve  for  a  quick  purely  mechanical  search  of 
the  preparations.  Regarding  the  importance  and  execution  of  these  pro- 
jection trichina  inspections,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  publications  of  Kohler, 
Bockelmann,  Schiiller,  in  the  Zeitschrift  f.  Fleisch-und  Milch-hygiene. 


FIG.  58 


FIG.  59 


American  compressor  (closed). 


American  compressor  (opened). 


That  the  taking  of  samples  of  meat  required  for  the  examination  of  trichinae 
should  be  undertaken  by  special  sample  takers  is  apparent  from  the  official 
directions.  These  sample  takers,  who  cannot  be  dispensed  with  in  the  larger 
abattoirs,  must  possess  the  same  qualifications  as  the  trichina  examiners.  The 
latter,  but  especially  the  sample  takers,  should  be  required  to  perform  the  exami- 
nation of  these  samples  for  measles. 

The  judging  of  the  results  of  the  examination  for  trichina?  and  measles  should 
not  be  trusted  to  the  trichina  examiners,  but  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  re- 
examined  by  veterinary  inspectors.  Regarding  the  disposition  of  meat  found 
to  be  infested  with  trichinae  or  measles,  see  the  regulations  to  the  imperial 
meat-inspection  law,  as  well  as  Chapter  VII,  page  192.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order 
150,  Regulation  13,  Section  17,  Paragraph  1.] 
11 


162      METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION  FORCE 

The  samples  of  muscles  which  are  cut  out  for  the  preparations  of  slides 
cannot  be  considered  as  unobjectionable  food  after  they  have  been  so  used, 
and  they  should,  therefore,  be  treated  as  meat  of  inferior  quality,  which,  at 
larger  places,  is  best  utilized  in  the  Freibanks. 

Legal  Means  of  Redress  and  Complaints  in  the  Execution  of  Meat 
Inspection. — An  appeal  to  higher  authority  against  the  decisions  of  the 
inspector  and  the  police  authorities  in  matters  pertaining  to  food 
animals  and  meat  inspection  must  be  granted  to  the  owners.  The 
regulations  of  the  meat-inspection  law  accordingly  determine  precisely 
the  manner  of  complaints  and  the  legal  means  of  redress  by  the  State 
governments.  The  latter  should  issue  measures  stating  that  in  cases 
of  appeal  from  the  condemnation  of  an  inspector  who  is  not  a  veteri- 
narian, the  opinion  of  a  graduated  veterinarian  must  be  required, 
and  in  case  of  condemnations  by  a  veterinarian,  at  least  the  opinion 
of  one  suitable  expert  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  a  locality 
or  in  abattoirs  which  have  only  one  veterinarian,  the  official  veteri- 
narian (district,  county,  or  chief  bureau  veterinarian)  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  expert.  In  the  larger  abattoirs,  a  chief  veterinarian  or 
the  director  of  the  abattoir  constitutes  the  expert.  This  should  be 
the  last  court  of  appeal,  as  the  value  of  the  object  does  not  warrant 
appeal  to  a  still  higher  authority  and  also  because  meat  is  subject 
to  spoiling,  and  besides  the  lesions  are  readily  obliterated.  [See  B. 
A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  28,  Section  1.] 

For  these  reasons  the  time  limit  for  the  institution  of  a  complaint 
should  not  extend  beyond  two  hours  after  the  decision  is  tendered. 

The  costs  incurred  by  the  appeal  should  be  borne  by  the  owner  if 
the  opinion  of  the  first  inspector  is  confirmed,  while  if  it  is  reversed 
the  costs  must  be  paid  by  the  authorities.  Only  by  such  a  procedure 
and  by  appropriately  high  costs  can  constant  appeals  be  prevented. 

Bookkeeping  and  Certifications  of  Findings.— The  bookkeeping  required 
in  connection  with  meat  inspection  depends  on  the  extent  of  the 
inspection  and  the  nature  of  other  local  conditions. 

Nevertheless,  a  diary-inspection  book  for  the  antemortem  and 
postmortem  inspection  should  be  kept. 

By  the  resolutions  of  the  Federal  Council  of  May  28,  1903,  and  May  5,  1904, 
authority  was  granted  to  the  State  governments  to  adopt  a  simplification  of 
the  daily  bookkeeping  in  public  abattoirs  to  such  an  extent  that  animals  passed 
on  inspection  mav*  be  entered  in  a  summary;  also  that  the  entering  of  the  time 
of  registration  and  the  time  of  the  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection 
may  be  omitted,  as  well  as  the  condemnation  of  single  parts,  when  they  result 
from  the  same  cause.  The  respective  animals  may  be  daily  combined  and 
entered,  but  must  be  kept  separated  according  to  species.  In  other  cases  the 
designation  of  further  distinguishing  signs  with  the  kind  and  sex  of  the  animals 
in  column  2  of  the  diary  may  be  omitted.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation 
27,  Sections  1  and  2.] 

At  the  inspection  stations  for  foreign  meats  the  bookkeeping  of 
meat  inspection  must  be  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  regulations. 


ANTEMORTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION  163 

If  requested,  the  inspector  must  make  out  a  special  certificate 
(certification  of  the  findings)  giving  the  results  of  the  inspection  of 
an  animal.  Certain  forms  are  adopted  for  these  certificates.  The 
imperial  regulations  contain  no  specifications  in  regard  to  the  issuance 
of  such  certificates  of  inspected  foreign  meats. 

Statistics  of  Antemortem  and  Postmortem  Inspection. — In  order  to 
utilize  the  results  of  the  inspection  statistically,  the  Federal  Council 
adopted  resolutions  on  June  1,  1904,  requiring  a  report  from  the 
inspectors.  They  direct  the  inspectors  to  prepare  quarterly  reports 
(slaughter  statistics)  of  the  inspected  animals,  on  a  specially  printed 
form.  These  reports  must  be  transmitted  to  the  places  determined 
by  the  State  governments.  In  addition  annual  statistical  compila- 
tions on  the  results  of  the  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection 
on  specially  prepared  forms  must  be  submitted.  The  veterinary 
and  non-veterinary  inspectors  use  different  forms,  adapted  to  the 
differing  duties  of  these  experts.  The  inspection  stations  for  foreign 
meat  must  also  prepare  annual  reports  of  the  results  of  inspection, 
and  until  further  orders,  the  findings  of  tuberculosis  in  the  slaughtered 
animals  must  be  prepared  and  compiled  in  an  annual  statistical  report. 

For  details  as  to  the  preparation  of  the  statistics,  reference  should 
be  made  to  the  special  regulations  of  the  various  State  governments. 

The  first  slaughter  statistics  were  prepared  for  the  third  quarter 
of  1904,  and  the  results  of  the  annual  inspection  were  reported  for  the 
first  time  for  the  year  1904.  The  compilation  of  the  entire  statistical 
material  is  done  by  the  Imperial  Health  Department,  which  also 
publishes  it. 

Fees  for  the  Antemortem  and  Postmortem  Inspection. — For  the  practice 
of  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection  the  experts  are  allowed 
a  compensation,  which  is  designated  as  "slaughter  fees."  For  the 
inspection  of  foreign  meats  the  amount  is  regulated  by  the  Federal 
Council;  for  all  other  inspections  it  is  left  to  the  State  governments. 
'The  amount  of  the  fee  should  not  be  an  unreasonable  burden  upon 
the  slaughterer,  yet  it  ought  to  assure  the  expert  an  adequate  pay. 

An  underbidding  of  the  authoritatively  adjusted  fees  by  the  experts 
should  be  condemned  and  severely  punished. 

The  collection  of  the  inspection  fees  in  abattoirs  and  in  places  which 
have  special  inspection  offices  (page  169)  established  for  ambulatory 
inspection,  is  made  through  the  respective  treasuries,  and  also  through 
the  local  police  authorities;  otherwise  the  fees  are,  as  a  rule,  directly 
paid  to  the  inspector.  The  latter  should  be  restricted  as  much  as 
possible  by  the  police  in  consideration  of  the  authority  of  the  inspector 
as  an  expert.  By  not  having  to  accept  his  fee  directly  from  the  owner 
it  would  make  the  inspector  more  or  less  independent  of  the  public. 
Therefore,  it  is  best  for  the  police  authorities,  as  well  as  for  the  inspec- 
tors, if  the  latter  are  appointed  with  a  fixed  salary  and  the  fees  for 
the  inspection  are  collected  by  the  authorities.  This  plan  must  also 
be  followed  when  the  payment  of  the  inspection  fee  to  the  inspector 
is  not  made. 


104     METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  INSPECTION  FORCE 

The  fees  are  also  to  be  payable  in  cases  where  the  inspector  was 
called,  but  was  unable  to  perform  the  duties  through  no  neglect 
of  his. 

Supervision  of  the  Antemortem  and  Postmortem  Inspection.— That 
the  entire  system  of  meat  inspection  must  be  placed  under  super- 
vision, and  under  the  ultimate  control  of  a  central  office  is  self  evident. 
According  to  the  regulations  the  State  governments  are  required  to 
issue  suitable  directions  for  the  examination  of  every  inspection  district 
at  least  every  two  years.  In  most  instances  it  is  best  to  assign  this 
work  to  official  veterinarians,  while  the  central  direction  of  the  office 
should  rest  in  the  hands  of  higher  state  veterinarians  (State,  department, 
or  district  veterinarians). 

Freibank. — By  the  term  Freibank  is  understood  a  place  (shop) 
for  the  selling  of  meat  of  inferior  quality,  not  first-class,  marketable 
meat  (page  175).  The  term  "bank,"  in  its  present  application,  origi- 
nates from  the  old  designation  of  the  meat-selling  places  as  "meat 
banks."  At  the  places  so  designated,  only  such  meat  was  sold  which 
possessed  all  the  requirements  of  high-grade  meat,  and,  therefore, 
it  was  accepted  as  "marketable"  (suitable  for  market,  shop  clean, 
meat  of  full  value).  All  other  meat,  which  while  still  salable  was 
designated  as  "not  marketable"  (not  suitable  for  market,  not  shop 
clean,  inferior  quality,  deficient),  and  its  sale  was  restricted  to  a  special 
bank  (Freibank),  located  apart  from  the  other  meat  shops.  At  present 
the  Freibank  is  an  indispensable  establishment  for  meat  inspection, 
the  necessity  for  which  need  not  be  further  discussed  here.  The  Frei- 
bank was  legalized  by  the  food  law  of  May  14,  1879,  in  the  regulations 
based  on  the  same,  in  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  of  June  3, 
1900,  and  also  by  State  as  well  as  local  statutory  legislation. 

The  principle  of  the  modern  Freibank  and  of  other  similar  estab- 
lishments is  selling  under  declaration — namely,  by  stating  the  cause 
which  makes  the  meat  otherwise  unmarketable.  As  a  consequence 
of  the  "non-marketable"  condition  of  the  meat  the  price  of  the  meat 
is,  as  a  rule,  lower  than  that  of  marketable  meat.  This  is,  however, 
not  absolutely  necessary,  and  depends  on  the  local  conditions  of  the 
meat  trade.  The  adjusting  of  the  price  of  the  meat  ought  to  be  left 
to  the  owners,  as  an  official  fixing  of  the  price  is  not  permissible  legally. 
In  case  the  compulsory  declaration  cannot  be  sufficiently  carried  out, 
meat  which  is  "non-marketable"  must  be  excluded  for  further  trade 
purposes.  Therefore,  the  purchase  of  such  non-marketable  meat  and 
its  utilization  by  butchers,  manufacturers  of  meat  products,  hotel, 
restaurant,  and  boarding-house  keepers,  is  inadmissible  and  punish- 
able. As  a  rule,  the  sale  of  meat  is  limited  to  small  quantities.  The 
official  supervision  of  the  entire  Freibank  management  is  accom- 
plished most  simply  and  successfully  in  places  where  only  authorita- 
tively appointed,  sufficiently  compensated,  and  otherwise  independent 
persons  are  employed.  A  supervision  of  the  Freibanks,  if  possible, 
by  veterinarians,  or  at  least  by  non-veterinary  inspectors,  is  necessary 
under  all  conditions. 


.\\TKMORTEM  AND  POSTMQRTEM   INSPECT/OX  165 

The  operation  of  the  Freibanks  may  be  advantageously  united  with  the 
equipment  for  storing  conditionally  passed  meat,  such  as  requires  refrigerating, 
boiling  or  pickling,  as  well  as  for  the  rendering  of  fat.  The  location  of  Frei- 
banks  in  places  which  have  abattoirs  is  best  established  on  the  premises,  as 
by  such  arrangements  their  operation  is  the  simplest  and  cheapest.  For  large 
cities  with  abattoirs  one  Freibank  would  be  insufficient,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  establish  one  or  more  additional  Freibanks  within  the  city  limits.  Further- 
more, and  this  applies  also  to  localities  without  abattoirs,  such  places  should 
be  selected  which  are  inhabited  principally  by  the  laboring  class,  and  also  not 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  regular  butcher  shop. 

Recently  it  was  recommended  to  establish  ambulatory  Freibanks  also,  and 
special  wagons  were  constructed  for  this  purpose. 

For  the  maintenance  of  the  Freibank  the  authorities  may  levy  appropriate 
dues,  and  the  expenses  may  also  be  covered  by  the  receipts  from  the  sales. 

The  sale  of  meat  under  police  supervision  resembles  the  Freibank.  This 
may  occur  at  any  place  where  the  meat  was  declared  inferior  in  quality.  This 
disposition  of  the  non-marketable  meat  proves  very  suitable,  especially  for 
smaller  towns  which  cannot  afford  to  maintain  a  permanently  equipped  Freibank. 

Under  certain  conditions  such  meat  may  be  immediately  disposed  of  on 
the  premises  of  the  butcher.  It  is  apparent  that  supervision  by  the  authorities 
must  be  especially  strict,  otherwise  all  the  requirements  which  constitute  the 
principles  of  the  Freibank  system  must  be  carried  out. 

[The  establishment  of  the  Freibanks  in  various  countries  of  Europe 
has  proved  a  great  success.  The  strict  official  supervision  of  them 
assures  the  poor  classes  a  wholesome,  palatable/  and  yet  inexpensive 
meat.  Such  meat  thus  advantageously  utilized  in  the  Freibanks 
would  otherwise  have  to  be  condemned  and  only  its  value  in  by-products 
would  come  into  consideration;  hence  the  economic  importance  of 
this  system  can  be  readily  recognized. 

The  establishment  of  the  Freibank  in  the  United  States,  making 
a  three-class  meat  system,  would  afford  the  same  advantages  that 
obtain  in  the  countries  where  it  is  now  in  operation.  The  system  would 
not  create  any  prejudice  among  that  class  of  people  who  would  patron- 
ize it,  as  there  are  at  the  present  time  a  large  number  of  families  in 
this  country  who  have  emigrated  from  the  countries  where  the  Freibank 
system  has  been  in  existence  for  many  years,  and,  therefore,  they 
are  thoroughly  familiar  with  this  institution,  and  would  gladly  take 
advantage  of  the  opportunities  afforded  thereby. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  advantages  to  be  gained  from  the 
Freibank,  there  is  one  which  would  have  a  far-reaching  effect  toward 
the  eradication  of  tuberculosis.  By  the  establishment  of  the  Freibank 
a  large  percentage  of  carcasses  which  are  under  the  present  system 
of  meat  inspection  condemned  for  tuberculosis  would  be  passed  for 
the  Freibank,1  which  would  greatly  diminish  the  losses  to  the  stock 
raiser,  shipper,  and  packer,  and  hence  the  existing  feeling  of  the  stock 
owners  toward  the  application  of  the  tuberculin  test  to  their  herds 
would  be  beneficially  influenced  in  that  a  greater  compensation  would 
be  obtained  for  their  tuberculous  cattle.] 

1  For  detailed  information  on  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr.  Ch.  W.  Stiles'  work  on  The 
Three-class  (Freibank)  Meat  System  as  an  Aid  in  Eradicating  Tuberculosis,  Jour,  of  the  American 
Medical  Association,  November  2,  1907,  p.  1483. 


IOC)     METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  IXXTFA'TIOX  FORCE 

Performance  of  the  Antemortem  and  Postmortem  Inspection  in 
the  Stockyards  and  Abattoirs.— The  purpose  of  the  public  abattoirs 
and  stockyards  (Chapter  XII)  is  primarily  to  centralize  at  one  point 
all  the  slaughtering  of  a  community.  They  are,  however,  of  greater 
importance  in  the  performance  of  meat  inspection  because  of  the 
inauguration  of  compulsory  slaughter  therein.  In  the  public  stock- 
yards and  abattoirs  the  inspection  of  animals,  both  alive  and  after 
slaughter,  is  not  restricted  to  the  animals  brought  there,  but  the  meat 
which  is  shipped  from  outside  into  such  a  community  is  also  inspected. 
In  very  large  cities,  however,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  establish 
special  inspection  stations  inside  of  the  city  for  the  inspection  of  meat  or 
carcasses  which  are  brought  or  shipped  into  the  city.  In  the  abattoirs 
the  meat-inspection  authorities  are  in  charge  of  the  further  disposi- 
tion of  the  condemned  meat  (page  188),  the  sale  of  inferior  or  impaired 
meat,  etc. 

In  the  extensive  and  varied  inspection  service  in  stockyards  and 
abattoirs  it  is  natural  that  this  work  can  be  carried  out  in  a  complete 
manner  only  by  veterinarians.  As  they  may,  at  the  same  time,  manage 
the  establishment,  conduct  the  affairs  of  the  food-animal  insurance, 
etc.,  a  requirement  to  have  only  veterinarians  assigned  to  the  manage- 
ment of  public  abattoirs  would  not  be  unjust.  Besides  the  veterinary 
director  the  services  of  special  veterinarians  to  carry  out  the  inspection 
in  larger  abattoirs  are  also  required.  The  performance  of  certain 
work  in  connection  with  meat  inspection  in  stockyards  and  abattoirs 
may  be  assigned  to  non-veterinary  inspectors  or  to  other  appointed 
experts  (trichina  examiners),  under  veterinary  supervision  and  respon- 
sibility; however,  this  should  be  followed  only  when  it  is  absolutely 
necessary.  The  employment  of  lay  inspectors  exclusively  for  meat- 
inspection  work  in  stockyards  and  abattoirs  cannot  be  approved. 
When  lay  inspectors  are  substituted  for  veterinary  experts  the  arrange- 
ment should  be  such  that  the  inspection  should  be  regularly  performed 
during  the  prescribed  hours.  The  antemortem  and  postmortem 
inspection  in  stockyards  and  abattoirs,  finally  necessitates  a  personnel 
for  the  supervision  of  the  order  and  the  operation  of  the  abattoirs, 
as  well  as  skilled  and  conscientious  assistants  for  the  discharge  of 
incidental  labor  and  duties  in  connection  with  the  meat-inspection 
service. 

In  large  abattoirs  the  time  for  inspection  extends,  as  a  rule,  to  all 
hours  of  the  day,  and  in  several  places  it  is  even  continued  during  the 
night.  In  small  and  medium-sized  abattoirs  it  is  reasonable  to  limit 
the  service  of  inspection  to  certain  hours,  adapted  to  local  necessities. 

The  Ambulatory  Antemortem  and  Postmortem  Inspection. — In 
places  which  do  not  possess  stockyards  and  abattoirs,  meat  inspec- 
tion must  be  performed  on  the  premises  of  the  slaughtering  party. 
This  is  naturally  far  more  troublesome,  more  difficult,  and  not  as 
thorough  as  inspection  in  public  abattoirs.  Where  the  size  of  the 
place  and  other  conditions  permit,  the  inspection  should  be  performed 
by  veterinarians,  and  only  in  case  they  cannot  be  obtained  should 


ANTEMORTEM  AND  POSTMORTEM  INSPECTION  167 

non- veterinary  inspectors  be  called  upon  to  perform  the  inspection. 
The  latter  will  probably  never  be  dispensed  with  in  small  towns  and 
in  sparsely  populated  localities.  In  ambulatory  meat  inspection  it  is 
always  necessary  to  form  inspection  districts,  which  assure  the  appointed 
meat  inspectors  suitable  and  exclusive  spheres  of  activity.  In  those 
localities  in  which  the  inspection  cannot  be  performed  by  an  individual 
expert,  inspection  stations  are  frequently  established  in  which  the 
inspections  to  be  made  are  reported,  and  the  fees  paid.  Here  the 
meat  brought  or  shipped  into  that  locality  is  also  inspected,  and  all 
matters  affecting  food  animals  and  meat  inspection  are  regulated. 

In  regard  to  the  time  of  inspection,  the  distance  to  be  covered  by 
the  inspector  should  always  be  considered,  and  sufficient  notice  should 
be  given  in  order  that  the  inspector  may  regulate  his  duties  accordingly. 
If,  as  in  hogs,  the  postmortem  inspection  and  examination  for  trichinae 
are  not  carried  out  by  one  and  the  same  inspector,  care  should  be 
taken  that  neither  of  the  inspections  should  remain  unperformed. 

Extraordinary  Meat  Inspection. — By  this  term  is  understood  special 
examinations  which  the  experts  of  meat  inspection  have  to  carry  out 
either  alone  or  accompanied  by  the  police  authorities.  They  include 
not  only  slaughtering  places,  but  also  the  premises  for  storing,  prepar- 
ing, and  marketing  meat.  Although  veterinary  inspectors  should 
always  pay  attention  to  the  condition  and  equipment  of  the  industrial 
premises  which  they  may  enter  in  the  execution  of  their  office,  yet 
unexpected  special  examinations  must  not  be  dispensed  with.  To 
counteract  any  possible  objections  to  these  examinations,  it  is  advis- 
able that  extraordinary  meat  inspection  should  be  considered  in  the 
local  statutory  regulations  in  connection  with  the  general  meat  inspec- 
tion. [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  6,  Section  21.] 

This  form  of  inspection  should  be  extended  to: 

1.  Proper  condition  and  equipment  of  the  rooms  used  in  connection 
with  the  operation  of  the  butcher  shop,  sausage  making,  or  preparation 
of  meat  products. 

2.  Cleanliness  of  the  plants. 

3.  The  presence  of  uninspected  meat,  or 

4.  Tainted  meat. 

5.  The  use  of  prohibited  preservatives  and  conserving  substances. 
(>.  Consideration   of   contingent,    special   regulations   for   the   meat 

brought  in. 

7.  Proper  condition  of  the  books  pertaining  to  slaughter,  and  the 
meat. 

Not  too  long  an  interval  should  elapse  between  the  examinations, 
and  during  the  warmer  season  they  should  be  undertaken  frequently. 

Such  examinations  may  also  extend  to  the  stores  which  market 
game,  fowl,  fish,  or  products  prepared  from  them,  even  if  these  food 
substances  in  themselves  are  not  subject  to  a  compulsory  inspection. 

According  to  an  order  of  the  Royal  Bavarian  Ministry  of  the  Interior  of 
November  21,  1906,  the  district  veterinarians  are  directed  to  spend  annually 


108      METHODS  OF  PROCEDURE  OF   THE  h\XPtiCTl()X   FORCE 

five  business  days  in  inspecting  the  butcheries,  sausage  manufactories,  meat 
stores  and  similar  establishments. 

This  control  has  to  be  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  measures  of  the 
prevailing  regulations.  At  the  same  time  it  is  especially  essential  to  advise  the 
proprietors  of  the  establishments  regarding  suitable  equipment  and  caretaking 
of  the  work  and  sales  rooms,  and  especially  concerning  their  proper  manage- 
ment. 

In  Prussia  similar  regulations  exist  only  in  several  of  the  government  dis- 
tricts. 

For  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  there  exists  an  order  that  the  inspectors  must 
report  to  the  police  authorities  all  offences  or  irregularities  which  they  may 
observe  in  slaughtering  or  meat-storing  establishments,  etc. 


CHAPTER    VI 

DECISIONS    OF   THE  VETERINARY  INSPECTORS  AND    DISPOSAL 
OF  THE   CONDEMNED   MEAT 

All  decisions  of  the  veterinary  inspectors  are  based  not  only  upon 
the  imperial  meat-inspection  law  and  regulations  issued  in  connection 
therewith,  but  also  on  the  State  and  local  police  orders  which  may 
be  authoritatively  passed.  As  the  authority  for  such  decisions  as  the 
non-veterinary  inspectors  may  make  is  subject  to  veterinary  super- 
vision, the  following  representations  apply  only  to  the  veterinary 
inspection  force: 

ANTEMORTEM   INSPECTIONS 

The  decision  of  the  inspector  may  determine  the  following: 

(a)  Prohibition  of  slaughter  when  the  animals  show  the  presence 
of   anthrax,   blackleg,  rinderpest,  rabies,  glanders,  hemorrhagic  septi- 
cemia,  or  if  there  is  a  suspicion  of  any  of  these  infections. 

(b)  Deferring  the  slaughter  of  the  animals  which  are  exhausted  or 
overheated   through   transportation,    and   of   those   calves   which   are 
apparently  immature.    While  there  are  no  legislative  measures  in  the 
regulations  for  this  action,  such  an  order  is  justified  from  a  technical 
standpoint;  besides  it  is  also  in  the  interest  of  the  owners  of  the  animals. 

(c)  Authorization  of  slaughter  in  all  other  cases. 


INSPECTION    OF    THE    SLAUGHTERED    ANIMALS 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  inspection  of  the  slaughtered  animal 
the  decision  of  the  inspector  may  be  as  follows: 

(a)  The  meat,  including  the  entire  carcass  (meat  with  bones,  fat, 
viscera,  and  all  other  parts  which  may  be  utilized  for  human  food,  the 
skin  as  well  as  the  blood),  is  passed  for  consumption  (marketable). 

(b)  The   meat   is   passed  for    consumption    (marketable)   after  the 
removal  and  condemnation  of  certain  affected  parts. 

Under  this  decision  is  also  classified  the  meat  of  the  so-called  "one- 
measled  cattle,"  which  after  storage  for  twenty-one  days  in  cooling  or 
refrigeration  room  may  be  passed  for  consumption  without  restrictions. 

(c)  The  meat  is  passed  for  consumption,  but  is  considerably  dimin- 
ished in  its  nutritive  value  (non-marketable,  inferior  quality),  and,  as  a 
rule,  several  diseased  viscera  or  more  extensive  parts  of  the  carcass  are 
removed  and  condemned. 


170 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


FIG.  60 


(d)  The  fat  is  passed  without  restrictions,  while  the  meat  is  either 
condemned,  conditionally  passed,  or  passed  without  restriction. 

The  unaffected  viscera  of  measly  animals,  the  meat  of  which  should 
be  either  condemned,  conditionally  passed,  of  inferior  quality,  or 
passed  without  any  restrictions,  are  also  included  in  this  group. 

(e)  Individual   quarters   are  conditionally  passed   (non-marketable, 
with  subjection  to  special  treatment),  or  condemned  while  the  other 
parts  are  passed  (marketable)  or  sold  as  of  inferior  quality  after  the 
removal  of  certain  altered  organs  and  parts. 

(/)  The  entire  carcass  is  conditionally  passed  (non-marketable,  with 
subjection  to  special  treatment),  with  the  exception  of  the  part  which 
might  have  to  be  condemned. 

(g)  The  fat  of  the  animal  is  conditionally  passed  (non-marketable, 
with  subjection  to  special  treatment),  and  the  other  meat,  including 
the  viscera,  is  condemned. 

(h)  The  entire  carcass  is  condemned  for  human  consumption. 
[While  in  Germany,  as  the  result  of  the  postmortem  examination, 
any  one  of  the  above-described  actions  may  be  taken  with  the  carcass, 

in  the  United  States  only  two  methods  of 
procedure  are  followed.  The  carcasses  are 
either  passed  for  consumption  or  they  are 
condemned  for  the  offal  tank.  Those  of  the 
first  group  are  either  passed  in  their  entirety 
or  they  are  passed  only  for  the  preparation 
of  lard,  in  which  case  the  meat  cannot  be 
utilized  in  any  form.  For  instance,  in  slight 
lesions  of  tuberculosis,  governed  by  B.  A.  I. 
Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  13,  rule 
D,  or  mild  cases  of  hog  cholera  and  swine 
plague,  ^Regulation  13,  Section  10,  Paragraph 
3,  or  in  localized  affections,  such  as  bruised 
parts,  fractures,  limited  lesions  in  one  of  the 
viscera,  etc.,  only  the  affected  parts  are  con- 
demned, while  the  carcass  mav  be  passed  for 
lard.] 

Marking  of  Meat. — The  inspected   meat 
should    be    stamped    without    delay.     [See 

B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  17,  Section  5.]  For  this  marking 
the.  ink  stamps,  which  may  be  cut  out  of  metal  and  variously  con- 
structed, seem  to  serve  best.  Rubber  stamps  cannot  be  recommended 
on  account  of  their  lesser  durability.  For  convenient  transportation,  a 
box  stamp  is  very  well  adapted,  while  for  the  great  amount  of  stamp- 
ing in  abattoirs  and  inspection  offices  a  box  stamp  similar  to  that  of 
Fig.  60  may  be  advantageously  employed. 

For  ambulatory  meat  inspection  the  Garth-Muto  stamp  (Fig.  01) 
may  be  recommended;  it  contains  all  the  necessary  forms  of  stamps 
conveniently  in  a  case.  The  stamp  consists  of  a  steel  handle  contain- 
ing a  spring,  a  sliding  ring,  and  five  separate  steel  frames,  which  can 


Jar  stamp. 


INSPECTION   0/<f   777 /<;  SLAUGHTERED  AMMALS 


171 


be  easily  connected  or  detached  from  the  handle  by  slight  pressure 
and  sliding  the  ring  on  the  shank  of  the  handle.  The  case  contains 
besides  the  stamps  a  small  bottle  of  stamping  ink,  a  pad,  and  forceps. 
Other  kinds  of  stamps  were  devised  by  Garth,  Liebe,  Kiihnau,  Hollander, 
Groning  and  others. 


FIG.  61 


Garth-Muto  stamping  outfit.      (Hauptner,  Berlin.) 

As  stamping  ink  for  marking  of  meat  of  native  slaughtered  animals 
a  blue  ink  has  been  prescribed.  It  must  be  harmless,  stable,  adhere 
easily,  and  dry  quickly.  It  should  also  penetrate  into  the  superficial 
layers  of  the  meat,  and  the  impressions  should  not  disappear  after 
pickling  or  smoking. 

Branding  irons  of  suitable  construction  are  used  for  marking,  and 
may  be  heated  in  charcoal  fire,  gas  flames  (bunsen  burner),  and  alcohol 
or  benzin  apparatuses.  The  construction  of  a  benzin  branding  stamp, 
which  the  author  had  constructed  from  a  benzin  soldering  iron,  is 
illustrated  and  described  under  Fig.  62.  This  simple  and  cheap  stamp- 
ing apparatus  can  be  highly  recommended,  and  there  is  no  danger 


172 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


of  burning  the  meat  with  the  benziu  flame,  which  streams  from  the 
heating  tube,  thereby  constantly  heating  the  stamp.  For  the  quick 
heating  of  several  branding  stamps,  the  large  benzin  heating  apparatus 
of  the  firm  of  Hauptner,  Berlin,  illustrated  on  page  30,  may  be  highly 
recommended. 


FIG.  62 


Ben/in  branding  stamp:  a,  benzin  container,  one  end  of  which  is  closed  by  a  cap  screwed  on,  but 
to  which  may  be  attached  a  small  pumping  arrangement  for  increasing  the  pressure  in  the  benzin 
container;  b,  opening  for  filling;  c,  screw  for  the  regulation  of  the  flow  of  the  benzin  vapors;  d,  fasten- 
ing screw  for  the  stamp;  e,  heating  pipe;  /,  iron  box,  which,  filled  with  alcohol,  serves  for  the  heating 
of  the  apparatus  in  order  to  develop  the  benzin  vapors;  g,  stamp. 

[B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  17,  Section  1  to  11,  describes  in 
detail  the  procedure  of  marking  all  of  the  meat,  whether  passed,  retained, 
or  condemned.  Doctor  Melvin  is  quoted  on  this  subject  as  follows: 

"The  marking  is  done  by  means  of  a  metal  or  rubber  stamp  and  a  purple 
indelible  ink,  and  the  words  thus  stamped  are  'U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed/ 
or  an  abbreviation  of  these  words,  with  the  establishment  number  (Fig.  63). 
The  number  is  one  assigned  to  the  house  by  the  Department  at  the  time  inspec- 


FIG.  63 


6. 


PS'D  FOR 

LARD 

U.  S.  INSP'D  AND 


j 


American  stamp  marks. 


tion  is  begun.  It  is  registered  in  the  Department  records,  and  besides  serving 
as  a  convenient  means  of  reference,  it  provides  a  sure  method  of  tracing  meat 
about  which  questions  may  subsequently  arise. 

"This  mark  is  absolutely  necessary  under  the  law  to  procure  the  movement 
of  the  meats  between  States.  The  law  forbids  carriers  to  transport  from  one 
State  to  another  any  meats  that  are  not  so  marked,  except  the  meats  of  farmers 
and  of  retail  butchers  and  dealers.  It  may  as  well  be  repeated  here,  in  order 


INSPECTION  OF   THE  SLAUGHTERED  AMMALS  173 

to  emphasize  the  statement,  thnt  the  Federal  law  does  not  and  cannot  forbid 
the  carriage  of  unmarked  meats  inside  a  State,  so  that  in  the  absence  of  State 
laws  the  carriers  may,  unmolested,  carry  any  kinds  of  meat  from  one  part  of 
a  State  to  another."] 

Disposal  of  Condemned  Meat. — If  a  condemnation  is  to  be  made 
in  accordance  with  the  decisions  enumerated  in  paragraphs  b  to  h, 
pages  169  and  170,  the  inspector  should  temporarily  seize  the  affected 
parts  or  the  entire  carcass  and  notify  the  owner  immediately,  as  well 
as  the  police  authorities,  stating  also  the  cause  of  the  condemnation. 
The  police  authorities  have  to  determine  the  further  disposal  of  the 
condemned  meat,  and  notify  the  owner  immediately  of  the  course 
taken. 

The  details  of  the  method  have  been  determined  by  the  individual 
state  governments,  thereby  greatly  facilitating  the  work  of  the  inspectors 
after  their  notification  of  the  police  authorities,  etc. 

[The  disposal  of  condemned  meat  in  the  United  States  is  carried 
out  in  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulations  14  to  16, 
which  contain  the  instructions  as  to  the  course  to  be  followed  with 
condemned  carcasses  and  meat-food  products.] 

The  disposal  of  the  meat  which  is  to  be  declared  of  inferior  value 
(non-marketable)  and  which  was  described  on  page  171,  belongs  to  the 
authority  of  the  inspector,  providing  there  are  no  other  provisions 
made  by  special  State  regulations. 

Meat  Passed  with  Restrictions  (Passed  Conditionally). — There  are 
five  methods  employed  to  remove  the  infurious  properties  of  meat 
belonging  to  this  group:  Boiling,  steaming  in  steam-boiling  appa- 
ratus, rendering,  pickling,  and  refrigerating. 

BOILING. — The  boiling  method  is  well  adapted  for  the  destruction 
of  all  animal  parasites  occurring  in  meat  and  also  of  the  vegetative 
forms  of  the  infectious  disease  producers,  which  the  meat  may  contain. 
For  the  killing  of  spores,  on  the  other  hand,  simple  boiling  is  not  suffi- 
ciently certain,  and  for  chemical  poisons  it  is,  as  a  rule,  entirely  ineffec- 
tive. The  satisfactory  boiling  of  meat  can  be  easily  recognized  by 
the  appearance  of  a  gray  or  white  coloration  of  the  meat,  which  should 
affect  even  the  deepest  layers. 

The  simple  boiling  in  open  boilers  can  be  easily  carried  out  every- 
where, but  it  has  the  disadvantage  that  in  the  process  a  comparatively 
large  quantity  of  the  soluble  nutritive  substances  are  extracted  from 
the  meat. 

STEAMING. — Steaming  of  meat  in  a  steam-boiling  apparatus  is 
an  innovation  due  to  the  united  efforts  of  Hertwig,  Duncker,  and 
Rohrbeck,  in  Berlin;  it  has  been  further  improved  by  numerous  veteri- 
narians and  technical  men.  This  method  aims  at  obtaining  a  high 
temperature  in  the  interior  of  meat,  infected  with  certain  diseases, 
through  the  application  of  steam  under  pressure.  This  renders  larger 
quantities  of  meat  suitable  for  human  food  with  as  slight  influence 
as  possible  on  its  nutritive  value.  The  apparatus  wjiich  served  at  first 
for  this  purpose,  and  which  was  also  installed  in  numerous  abattoirs, 


174 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


is  Rohrbeck's  steam  disinfect  or.  It  was  originally  designed  for  the 
disinfection  of  clothes,  but  has  been  equipped  for  the  sterilization 
of  meat. 

Various  other  steam-boiling  apparatuses  have  been  constructed 
since  and  have  gradually  forced  the  Rohrbeck  apparatus  to  the  back- 
ground. There  is  a  considerable  special  literature  concerning  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  these  disinfectors,  as  well  as  regard- 
ing steam  boiling  itself. 


FIG.  64 


Meat  steamer,  according  to  Engineer  Honnicke  in  Berlin-Schom-berg.     Vertical  section. 

Honnicke's  meat  steamer  and  the  meat  steamer  of  the  firm  of  Rud. 
H.  Hartmann,  of  Berlin,  are  the  most  important  types  at  present. 

Honnicke's  Meat  Steamer. — Honnicke's  meat  steamer  is  represented 
in  cross-section  in  Fig.  64. 

The  sterilizer  proper  consists  of  the  body  (1),  which,  on  its  lower  side,  is 
equipped  with  a  double  bottom.  On  this  steam  double  bottom  the  water 
for  the  production  of  the  sterilizing  steam  is  located.  A  pipe  (3),  which  con- 
tains a  conveniently  placed  stop-valve,  conducts  the  steam  from  the  boiler  to 
the  double  bottom,  which  heats  the  water  within.  The  condensed  water  which 
is  formed  by  the  heajbing  or  boiler  steam  is  drawn  off  by  a  pipe  (4)  into  a  con- 
veniently located  condensed  water  receiver.  The  containers  or  baskets  (5) 


INSPECTION  OF   THE  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS  175 

receive  the  meat.  The  movable  door  (6),  which  is  attached  to  side  hinges,  is 
closed  hermetically  with  the  aid  of  clamp  screws.  In  order  to  draw  off  the  broth 
conveniently  a  stopcock  (8)  is  supplied. 

At  the  side  of  the  sterilizer  proper  stands  the  condenser,  which  is  connected 
with  the  first  by  a  pipe  (11),  which  draws  off  air,  the  mixture  of  steam  and 
air,  and  steam  from  the  body  (1).  The  pipe  opens  into  a  chamber  (12)  above 
the  bottom  (13).  The  chamber  (9)  is  protected  above  from  falling  dirt  by  a 
loose  cover.  It  receives  a  connection  (14)  for  the  supply  of  fresh  water  and 
a  tap  cock  (15)  for  drawing  off  hot  water.  To  the  lower  chamber  (10)  another 
chamber  (16)  is  connected,  which,  through  the  pipes  (16',  16"),  connects  with 
the  outside.  An  emptying  cock  (17)  serves  for  drawing  off  the  condensed  water. 
In  the  operation  of  the  apparatus  the  meat  is  placed  into  the  baskets,  the 
double  bottom  is  filled  with  water,  and  the  chamber  (9)  of  the  condenser  is 
filled  with  fresh  water;  chamber  (10)  must  be  empty  at  the  beginning  of  the 
operation.  After  this  has  been  completed  the  door  (6)  is  closed,  and  the  steam 
valve  in  pipe  (3)  is  opened,  when  the  apparatus  may  be  left  alone.  There  is 
no  air  cock  present.  At  the  beginning  of  the  heating  of  the  water  to  100°  C., 
before  the  formation  of  steam,  the  air  volume  is  warmed  to  a  certain  extent, 
and  expands  correspondingly.  At  this  time  some  of  the  air  has  already  entered 
the  chambers  (11,  12,  10,  and  16)  from  the  body  (1).  At  the  beginning  of 
steam  formation  a  steam-air  mixture  develops,  which  also  reaches  the  chambers 
(12  and  10)  through  the  pipe  (11)  in  the  proportion  of  the  displacement  to  which 
it  is  subjected  by  the  newly  formed  steam,  to  the  extent  of  the  heat  not  absorbed 
by  the  meat.  From  this  steam-air  mixture  the  steam  contents  is  now  con- 
densed in  the  chambers  (12  and  10),  and  the  air  leaves  through  the  pipe  (16), 
while  the  condensed  water  accumulates  on  the  bottom  of  chamber  (16).  There 
it  gradually  rises  higher,  until  it  finally  closes  the  lower  mouth  of  chamber 
(16).  The  location  of  this  mouth  is  placed  at  a  selected  point  so  that  at  the 
time  it  gets  closed  all  the  air  has  certainly  disappeared  from  body  (1).  After 
the  closing  of  chamber  (16),  by  the  condensation,  the  development  of  pressure 
begins,  that  is,  the  steam  pressure  in  the  sterilizer  begins  to  rise.  The  maximal 
height,  of  the  pressure  may  be  established  by  the  height  of  pipe  (16).  This 
may  be  extended  as  high  as  it  is  desired.  After  the  closing  of  the  lower  mouth 
of  chamber  (16),  the  water  of  condensation  rises  under  the  expansion  which 
exists  in  body  (1),  and  effects  a  counterpressure  against  the  present  steam 
pressure.  At  a  corresponding  height  the  pipe  (16)  is  led  either  directly  to  the 
outside  or  into  the  canalization.  If  the  pressure  in  body  (1)  should  reach  such 
a  height  that  the  water  in  pipe  (16)  would  exceed  the  highest  point,  it  would 
then  overflow.  But  this  is  in  practice  prevented  by  other  arrangements. 

One  of  these  arrangements  has  already  been  mentioned  in  discussing  the 
abstraction  of  air — the  steam  condenser.  The  surplus  of  steam,  which  on 
account  of  its  pressure  aims  toward  the  exit  of  chamber  (16),  which  is  closed 
by  water,  must  pass  the  cool  surfaces  of  the  condenser  formed  by  the  chamber 
(12)  and  the  bottom  (13).  As  soon  as  the  steam  from  the  body  passes  in  here 
the  cool  surfaces  abstract  from  the  steam  a  part  of  its  temperature  and  expan- 
sion, and  its  resulting  action  on  the  column  of  water  is  diminished  and  the 
expelling  of  water  therefore  is  checked.  It  should  be  remembered  that  at  the 
same  time  the  meat  contained  in  the  apparatus  continually  abstracts  heat 
from  the  sterilizing  steam  so  that  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  steam  produced 
in  the  double  bottom  comes  into  consideration  in  the  condenser.  To  the  same 
extent  as  the  taking  up  of  heat  by  the  meat  is  reduced,  the  dropping  of  juice 
from  the  meat  into  the  fluid  of  the  double  bottom  is  likewise  reduced.  The 
results  of  both  conditions  are  that  the  fluid  of  the  double  bottom — that  is, 
on  the  heating  surface — gradually  becomes  poorer  in  water;  on  the  other 
hand,  it  becomes  continually  richer  in  constituents,  among  which  fat  is  the 
most  difficult  to  heat.  This  increasing  concentration  of  the  broth  stands  in 
direct  opposite  relation  to  the  quality  of  heat  absorption  of  the  meat.  The 
consequence  of  this  is  that  steam  production  and  the  quality  of  heat  absorp- 
tion become  proportional  to  each  other,  as  the  steam  production  diminishes 


170 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


with  the  loss  of  water  in  the  broth.  Therefore,  the  last  procedure  prevents 
exceeding  the  desired  highest  expansion.  Honnicke's  meat  steamer  is  also 
advertised  as  an  apparatus  equipped  with  direct  heating  arrangements. 

Harlmann's  Meat  Steamer. — The  construction  of  Hartmann's  new  meat 
steamer,  Franke's  system,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  65.  The  fundamental  idea  on 
which  the  construction  is  based,  originated  with  the  late  M.  Franke,  veterinarian 
of  the  Berlin  abattoirs.  It  consists  in  eliminating  from  the  sterilizing  chamber 
all  the  air  by  filling  it  with  water  and  by  placing  the  meat  into  the  boiling  water 
to  prevent  a  considerable  soaking  by  the  formation  of  a  superficial  coagulated 

Fu;.  Go 


Steam-- 


Draw  pipe 


Overflow  pipe/ 


Bouillon 
find  fat 


Condensation 

^fa^^/^/T^/'/^'/f/TiZ/T/'/z/ftty       water 


Hartmann's  meat  steamer,  system  Franke,  in  vertical  section. 


layer.  Attention  was  first  directed,  to  the  abstraction  of  the  air,  because, 
as  is  well  known,  its  presence  excludes  the  presence  of  any  other  body,  even 
steam,  and  further  because  air  on  account  of  its  slight  heat  conducting  qualities 
prevents  the  passage  of  heat  from  the  sterilizing  steam  into  the  meat.  In  this 
apparatus  the  abstraction  of  the  air  is  accomplished  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
vertical  boiler  is  closed  air  tight,  and  is  entirely  filled  with  hot  water,  which 
afterward,  in  the  course  of  the  process,  is  displaced  from  the  boiler  in  the  largest 
part  by  the  developing  steam.  The  abstraction  of  the  air  in  the  apparatus 
is  without  doubt,  complete.  The  sterilizer  consists  of  a  vertical  boiler,  which 
rests  on  four  legs,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  steam  jacket  up  to  its  upper  angular 


INSPECT/OX   OF    THE  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS  177 

reinforcement.  Above  the  angle  iron  an  overflow  pipe  branches  off,  which 
unites  by  a  three-way  cock  with  the  emptying  pipe  of  the  inside  chamber  of 
the  jacket,  to  which  the  condensation  drain  pipe  is  applied  at  the  lowest  part. 
The  upper  closing  of  the  boiler  is  accomplished  by  a  cover  which  is  arched 
toward  the  inside,  the  internal  surface  of  which  reaches  deeper  into  the  cylinder 
than  the  height  of  the  mouth  of  the  overflow  pipe.  The  handling  of  the  cover 
and  the  perforated  meat  baskets  is  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  a  wheel-crane, 
the  block  being  attached  to  the  side  of  the  apparatus  or  to  one  of  its  legs.  After 
the  cylindrical  chamber  is  filled  with  water  to  a  certain  height,  which  is  brought 
to  a  boiling  temperature  by  the  heating  of  the  steam  jacket,  the  baskets  con- 
taining the  meat  are  placed  into  the  boiling  water,  the  lowest  basket  resting 
on  several  shelves  of  angle  iron.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  highest  layers 
of  the  meat  are  submerged  in  the  water.  The  water  cools  off  several  degrees 
while  putting  in  the  meat,  but  is  again  soon  brought  to  a  boiling  point  by  the 
continual  heating  of  the  jacket.  After  the  meat  has  been  boiled  for  about 
five  minutes  in  the  open  boiler  the  cover  is  placed  on  and  made  steam  tight. 
This  displaces  all  the  superfluous  water  through  the  overflow  pipe  and  renders 
the  boiler  free  of  air.  In  keeping  open  the  lower  drainage  vent  the  steam 
jacket  remains  in  operation.  The  steam  developed  from  the  water  of  the  boiler 
displaces  by  this  time  the  water  up  to  a  height  of  the  bottom  drainage  stand- 
pipe.  As  soon  as  steam  escapes  from  the  delivery  cock,  the  draining  valve  is 
closed,  and  the  remainder  of  the  water  is  continually  evaporated;  in  this  steam 
the  meat  is  well  cooked.  On  the  bottom  of  the  sterilizer  the  dripping  juice 
forms  with  the  water  a  bouillon,  on  the  surface  of  which  a  layer  of  fat  collects. 
After  a  certain  time  the  steam  jacket  ceases  to  be  operated,  and  the  apparatus 
is  left  to  itself  until  the  termination  of  the  sterilization.  After  the  opening 
and  removal  of  the  cover,  the  meat  baskets  are  taken  out  with  the  aid  of  the 
wheel  crane,  the  standpipe  is  lifted,  and  the  meat  broth  is  drained  off  through 
the  draining  valve.  The  apparatus  is  also  placed  on  the  market  in  the  form 
of  a  quadrangular  box  into  which  the  meat  baskets  are  placed  by  hand  and 
made  to  lay  alongside  each  other.  The  heating  surface  in  this  form  of  apparatus 
lies  on  the  bottom  of  the  box. 

In  Franke's  apparatus,  with  direct  heating,  the  forged  iron  boiler  hangs  by 
an  upper  angle  ring  in  a  forged  iron  casing,  which  is  covered  with  fire  clay  on 
the  inside,  representing  the  covering  of  the  boiler.  The  casing  possesses  on  the 
front  face  a  preliminary  firing  place,  the  heating  fumes  of  which  envelop  the 
boiler  directly  from  all  sides  and  escape  on  the  back  side  of  the  boiler  through 
an  upper  draft  as  flue.  A  mercury  safety  standpipe,  a  safety  valve,  and  man- 
ometer prevent  exceeding  the  permissible  pressure.  The  overflow  pipe  which 
has  been  discussed  in  detail  in  the  description  of  the  apparatus  for  steam  heat- 
ing has  its  continuance  in  the  inside  of  the  boiler  up  to  the  lowest  surface 
of  the  water,  beneath  the  lowest  of  the  two  meat  baskets.  It  works  in  a  way 
similar  to  that  described  in  its  construction  for  steam  heat.  To  obtain  the 
required  pressure  for  forcing  out  the  water  through  the  overflow  pipe,  the 
safety  valve  is  weighted  down  by  a  weight  pushed  down  on  its  lever  until 
a  pressure  of  0.05  an  atmosphere  is  obtained,  which,  after  the  escape  of  the 
water,  is  again  removed.  Afterward  the  fire  is  drawn  out  of  the  box  and  the 
sterilization  is  concluded,  with  the  heat  contained  in  the  fire-clay  lining.  This 
heat  suffices  to  convert  the  water  which  is  contained  in  the  bottom  of  the  boiler 
entirely  into  steam.  An  advantage  of  this  apparatus  is  its  easy  transportation, 
and  it  is  always  in  readiness  to  be  put  up  for  immediate  operation.  The  flue 
has  only  to  be  connected  with  a  chimney  of  the  building  by  making  an  opening 
into  it. 

Another  construction  of  meat  steamer  has  been  placed  on  the  market  by 
the  firm  of  Rud.  A.  Hartmann,  under  the  designation  of  Hartmann's  New 
Meat  Sterilizer,  patent  of  Becker  and  Ulmann,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  66, 
and  which  is  also  constructed  for  direct  firing. 

The  sterilizer  consists  of  a  forged  iron  vertical  cylinder  (a),  which  in  front 
is  supplied  with  an  easily  moving  door,  and  on  the  lower  part  it  has  a  cleating 
12 


17S 


DECISIONS   OF    VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


for  steam  heating  (r).  From  the  deepest  point  of  the  inside  room  a  pipe  (/) 
branches  off  to  the  receiving  tank  (<y),  which  is  set  up  to  the  side  of  the  sterilizer. 
The  cock  (A)  serves  for  the  draining  of  the  entire  apparatus.  The  neatly  tinned 
meat  baskets  (i),  which  are  constructed  of  perforated  sheet  iron,  are  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  meat  to  be  sterilized,  and  they  can  be  comfortably  slid 
into  the  apparatus  and  also  drawn  out  on  ledges  which  are  fastened  to  the  sides 
of  the  cylinder.  The  water  which  condenses  in  the  steam  cleating  (c)  is  sepa- 
rated by  an  automatic  condensation  drawer  (A*).  A  cock  serves  for  the  abstrac- 
tion of  air  from  the  inside  of  the  apparatus.  Before  beginning  the*  operation 
the  boiler  is  filled  with  pure  water  to  the  level  (/),  then  the  meat  is  sprinkled 
with  spices,  placed  into  the  perforated  baskets  («'),  shoved  into  the  apparatus, 
and  the  door  closed.  Then  through  the  valve  (e)  the  steam  cleating  (c)  is 
heated,  which  soon  brings  the  water  to  evaporation.  An  automatic  arrange- 
ment for  the  abstraction  of  air  separates  the  air  contained  in  the  apparatus 
during  the  development  of  steam,  so  that  soon  the  air  is  sufficiently  abstracted 
from  the  entire  apparatus  and  is  entirely  filled  up  with  steam.  From  this 
moment  on  the  meat  is  subjected  to  the  influence  of  steam  at  100°  C.  The 
same  condenses  on  the  meat,  and  heats  it  up,  the  condensate  drips  below, 
and  is  again  converted  into  steam  on  the  heating  surface  (c). 


FIG.  66 


Hartmann's  new  meat  sterilizer  in  vertical  section.     Becker  and  Ulmann's  patent. 

With  the  increased  warming  of  the  meat  the  consumption  of  steam  decreases. 
But  as  the  steam  production  on  the  heating  surface  (c)  remains  approximately 
the  same,  the  result  is  that  more  steam  is  produced  than  is  used  up.  Through 
this  a  slight  pressure  develops,  which  presses  the  water  from  the  sterilizer 
to  the  receiving  tank  (</).  The  heating  surface  (r)  is  consequently  more  or 
less  deprived  of  water,  and  in  the  same  relation  the  steam  production  is 
diminished.  In  this  way  the  balancing  of  the  steam  production  and  the  heat 
absorption  of  the  meat  is  spontaneously  accomplished.  The  pressure  in  the 
sterilizer  can  never  rise  higher  than  the  corresponding  pressure  in  the  receiving 
tank  (jy),  and  this  amounts  at  maximum  to  about  500  mm.,  when  the  tem- 
perature of  the  steam  is  fully  100°  C.  As  soon  as  the  temperature  penetrates 
to  the  interior  of  the  meat  and  reaches  80°  C.,  the  steam  is  shut  off  by  the 
closing  of  valve  (c),  and  then  the  apparatus  is  opened  and  its  contents  removed, 
and  the  bouillon  is  drawn  off  by  the  cock  (//). 


nipt 
of  i 


indication  of  the  conclusion  of  sterilization,  it  is  advisable  to  place  an  electric 


INSPECTION  OF   THK  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS 


179 


contact  thermometer  (Fig.  67)  into  one  of  the  pieces  of  meat.    Other  similar 
instruments  were  constructed  by  Franke,  Honnicke  and  others. 

The  signal  thermometer,  Honnicke's  model,  is  represented  in  Fig.  68.  This 
instrument  contains  a  mercury  signal  thermometer,  in  which  the  graduations 
are  made  as  fine  as  possible.  It  is  combined  with  a  metallic  protective  casing. 
The  thermometer  proper  consists  of  a  glass  body  (a),  with  mercury  bulb  (a'} 
and  capillary  tube  (of/).  Into  the  mercury  bulb  on  the  lower  part  is  a  platinum 
wire  (6),  melted  in,  and  a  similar  kind  (&')  is  applied  in  the  capillary  tube 
(a")  at  a  -corresponding  height,  which  should  indicate  the  temperature  to  be 
attained  by  signal.  This  thermometer  is  placed  into  a  metallic  tube,  which 
is  provided  with  a  slit  (c')}  which  is  closed  below  by  a  perforated  winding 


FIG.  67 


FIG.  08 


€. 


Simple  form  of  electric  mercury  contact, 
thermometer. 


Electric  signal  thermometer,  models  of 
Honnicke,  Berlin  (Schoneberg). 


stopper  (a),  made  of  insulating  material.  Through  this  perforation  the  plati- 
num wire  (6)  is  inserted  and  is  pressed  in  with  the  aid  of  the  perforation  (e'} 
and  a  contact  screw  (e"),  which  is  supplied  with  a  knob.  Above  on  the  casing 
(c)  rests  a  metallic  plate  (/),  through  which  the  platinum  wire  (b')  is  inserted. 
This  is  then  also  pressed  in  with  the  aid  of  the  perforation  (.7')  and  a  contact 
screw  ((/"),  which  is  supplied  with  a  knob  (</).  After  the  mercury  column  has 
expanded  at  the  desired  temperature  to  the  upper  platinum  wire  the  current 
circuit  closes.  The  current  runs  from  the  current  producer  through  the  conduit 
wire  (/')  to  the  ringing  apparatus  and  again  to  the  current  producer,  whereby 
the  signal  is  sounded.  In  employing  the  signal  thermometer,  it  is  inserted  with 
the  mercury  bulb  downward  perpendicularly  into  a  piece  of  meat  of  medium 
weight.  Before  the  insertion  it  is  advisable  to  make  certain  that  not  a  drop 
of  mercury  is  torn  from  the  column.  If  this  is  the  case  it  is  returned  to  the  other 
portion  of  the  mercury  through  shaking  or  by  some  other  method.  It  is  also 


ISO  DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 

advisable  to  observe  whether  a  contact  exists  by  turning  the  squeeze  screw 
to  the  right.  Both  insulated  wires  leading  to  the  instrument  are  conducted 
into  the  meat  steamer  of  Honnicke  (Fig.  64)  simply  through  the  notch  in  the 
door.  At  the  place  where  the  wires  touch  the  border  of  the  door  either  a  simple 
sheet  of  paper  is  placed  around  them  or  they  are  covered  with  a  paper  husk 
supplied  with  the  instrument.  In  closing  the  door  the  wires  are  squeezed 
between  the  border  and  the  jam  of  the  door;  this,  however,  does  not  produce 
any  inconvenience  in  the  tight  closing  of  the  door. 

The  thorough  steaming  of  the  meat  with  the  various  apparatuses  requires,  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations,  a  temperature  of  80°  C.  for  two  to  two  and 
one-half  hours  in  the  interior  of  the  pieces  of  meat.  In  this  process  the  loss  of 
weight  of  the  meat  is  considerably  less  than  in  cooking  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, the  difference  amounting  in  beef  to  25  to  26  per  cent.,  and  in 
pork  to  12  to  13  per  cent.  The  meat  remains  very  juicy,  of  a  spicy,  pleasant 
taste  and  odor,  resembling  roasted  meat. 

The  apparatuses  are  principally  utilized  in  rendering  uninjurious  the  meat 
of  tubercular  animals  in  certain  forms  of  the  disease,  as  well  as  in  trichinous 
and  measly  meat.  Other  various  kinds  of  disinfectors  serve  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  the  above^discussed  apparatuses,  as  for  instance  the  disinfector  of 
Budenberg-Dortmund  and  the  steam-cooking  and  rendering  apparatus  of 
Seiffert  (W.  Boese,  Jr.,  in  Breslau). 

MELTING  OUT  FAT. — The  process  of  melting  out  fat  which  is  employed 
for  the  extraction  of  fat  from  diseased  animals  (tuberculosis,  measles) 
will  be  only  briefly  mentioned. 

Cut  or  mashed  fat  is  rendered  in  ordinary  open  kettles,  during 
which  the  temperature  rises  to  150°  C.  The  meat  steamers  of  Honnicke, 
Hartmann  and  others,  as  well  as  the  cleated  boilers  with  steam  running 
through,  are  also  adapted  for  this  purpose.  However,  the  liquid  fat 
must  not  be  drawn  off  before  a  temperature  of  at  least  100°  C.  is 
registered.  The  connective-tissue  residue  of  the  fat  tissues  is  then 
scooped  off  and  subjected  to  pressure  in  order  to  obtain  as  much  of 
the  remaining  fat  as  possible. 

[In  the  United  States,  carcasses  showing  lesions  which  justify  the 
passing  of  the  tissues  for  lard  have  to  be  subjected,  according  to  the 
B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  10,  Paragraph  3,  and 
Section  13,  rule  I),  to  a  temperature  of  220°  F.  for  not  less  than  four 
hours.) 

PICKLING. — The  commercial  method  of  pickling  may  render  measly 
meat  if  the  pickling  is  carried  out  sufficiently  long  (three  to  four  weeks) 
and  if  the  pieces  of  meat  do  not  exceed  over  2  kg.  The  destructive 
action  of  pickling  on  pathogenic  bacteria  or  their  products  is  very 
slight;  but  this  method  may  be  applied  to  the  meat  of  hogs  which 
are  condemned  on  account  of  swine  erysipelas,  hog  cholera,  and  swine 
plague. 

[Such  dispositions  of  carcasses  affected  with  the  diseases  mentioned 
are  not  admissible  in  the  United  States,  and  the  regulations  governing 
the  disposition  of  such  affected  carcasses  will  be  referred  to  under  the 
discussion  of  those  diseases.] 

THOROUGH  CHILLING. — The  method  designated  as  "thorough 
chilling"  is  employed  exclusively  on  slightly  measled  beef,  and  serves 
to  keep  the  meat  in  a  fresh  condition.  The  action  of  low  temperature 


INSPECTION  OF   THE  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS  181 

on  the  measles  does  not  destroy  them,  but  they  lose  their  power  to 
develop  during  the  time  the  meat  is  retained.  The  employment  of 
this  method  necessitates  well-arranged  meat-cooling  rooms  in  all 
seasons. 

The  sale  of  conditionally  passed  meat  which  has  been  rendered 
fit  for  human  consumption  is  only  permitted  after  making  known 
this  condition,  and  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  after  it  has 
been  satisfactorily  marked.  The  more  specific  measures  concerning 
this  marking  are  left  to  the  State  governments.  The  sale  of  such  meat 
should  always  be  carried  out  under  the  restrictions  corresponding  to 
those  mentioned  on  page  166  for  the  Freibank. 

Permission  for  the  conditionally  passed  meat  to  be  utilized  by  the 
owner  in  his  own  household  is  not  prevented,  provided  that  the  meat 
has  been  rendered  fit  for  consumption  and  that  the  owners  are  not 
butchers,  meat  dealers,  hotel  or  restaurant  keepers. 

Meat  of  Inferior  Quality. — The  conditions  stated  for  conditionally 
passed  meat  should  also  be  applied  to  the  sale  and  utilization  of  meat 
which  has  been  declared  of  inferior  quality  (non-marketable). 

[The  regulations  governing  the  meat  inspection  in  the  United  States 
contain  no  provisions  for  passing  certain  dressed  carcasses  conditionally. 
An  exception  is  only  made  with  certain  slight  cases  of  tuberculosis  and 
hog  cholera,  when  the  carcasses  may  be  passed  conditionally  for  lard. 
Accordingly,  the  Freibank  system  and  the  sterilization  of  meat  are  not 
practised  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time.] 

Absolutely  Condemned  Meat. — Meat  condemned  as  unfit  for  human 
consumption  may  be  disposed  of  harmlessly  by  subjecting  it  to  a  higher 
degree  of  heat  (cooking  or  steaming  until  the  maceration  of  the  soft 
parts,  dry  distillation,  burning),  treating  it  with  chemicals  which  will 
bring  about  dissolution  of  the  soft  parts  or  burying  it.  The  products 
obtained  by  the  first  method  may  be  utilized  in  the  industrial 
arts. 

Before  burying,  deep  cuts  should  be  made  into  the  meat,  and  it 
should  be  sprinkled  over  with  lime  or  fine  dry  sand;  or  tar,  crude  oil 
(carbolic  acid,  cresol),  or  alpha-naphthylamin  in  5  per  cent,  solution 
should  be  poured  over  it  (denaturing).  The  latter  procedure  is  also 
recommended  when  the  condemned  meat  cannot  be  disposed  of  at 
once  under  the  supervision  of  the  inspector.  Condemned  meat  must 
always  be  marked  except  in  the  case  of  single  portions  of  meat,  which 
are  disposed  of  immediately  in  the  presence  of  the  inspector.  All 
other  condemned  organs  and  parts  must  be  marked  positively  with  a 
condemned  stamp,  whereby  the  condemnation  becomes  official. 

For  temporary  storing  of  condemned  meat,  especially  in  larger  abattoirs, 
special  containers  should  be  provided  from  which  removal  of  condemned 
parts  should  be  impossible  except  by  the  proper  authorities.  For  the  collec- 
tion of  such  meats  a  box  on  a  cart  frame  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  69.  The  condemned 
part  is  thrown  into  the  trough  c,  and  the  crank  is  turned  around  180°,  which 
causes  the  piece  to  drop  into  the  box  .4.  Condemned  pieces  cannot  be  taken 
out  without  removal  of  the  locked  cover  with  the  attached  trough,  as  the 


182 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


trough  fills  out  the  opening  of  the  box,  and  besides  in  turning  over  the  box 
the  trap  board  immediately  covers  the  opening  between  the  trough  wall  and 
the  box  cover. 


^%«^m<^^^ 


Collecting  box  for  condemned  meat  on  cart  structure,  in  section.     Model  of  Honnicke,  Berlin. 

(Schoneberg.) 

SIMPLE  BOILING. — Simple  boiling  of  the  meat  in  open  boilers  until 
the  soft  parts  fall  apart  is  carried  out  in  old  flaying  plants  in  order 
to  obtain  the  fat,  bones,  and  the  mass  of  meat  boiled  to  pieces;  the 
method  is  not  good,  and  from  a  hygienic  standpoint  is  not  without 
objection. 

BOILING  UNDER  HIGH  PRESSURE. — Boiling  meat  to  pieces  in  a  high- 
pressure  steam  apparatus  includes  the  advantages  of  a  certain  sterili- 
zation, together  with  the  gaining  of  valuable  products.  The  appa- 
ratus is  operated  by  means  of  water  steam,  conveying  to  the  meat 
a  temperature  up  to  150°  C.  The  meat  is  broken  up  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  principal  constituents,  such  as  bones,  fat,  insoluble  albumen, 
glue,  and  other  substances  as  well  as  glue  substances,  may  be  obtained 
separately. 

Of  the  high-pressure  steam  apparatuses  the  following  are  most 
extensively  used: 

Simple  Steam  Digester. — The  simple  steam  digester  (steam  barrel)  is, 
as  a  rule,  a  perpendicularly  constructed  iron  container,  supplied  with 
a  perforated  bottom,  which  can  be  made  steam  tight  by  a  cover  on 
top.  Below  it  is  equipped  with  arrangements  for  the  draining  of  fluids, 
and  it  also  has  a  manhole.  On  various  parts  of  the  digester,  steam  of 


INSPECTION  OF   THE  HLAVai/TKItED  ANIMALS  183 

2  to  3  atmospheric  pressures  may  be  conveyed  to  the  pieces  of  meat 
placed  in  the  apparatus. 

After  sufficient  steaming;,  the  fluids  (condensed  water,  meat  hroth,  and  fat) 
which  are  collected  below  the  perforated  bottom  are  drained  off,  and  the  firmer 
masses  still  intact  are  removed  from  the  digester.  The  bones  are  utilized 
under  certain  conditions  for  the  preparation  of  bone  flour,  and  the  other  parts 
yield  muscle  flour,  after  they  have  been  dry-cured  and  ground  up  in  mills; 
or  the  bones  are  dried  and  ground  with  the  meat  and  the  product  is  called 
"animal  body  flour."  This  is  advantageously  utilized  as  a  fertilizer  and  food 
substance.  The  fat  serves  for  the  manufacture  of  soap,  ointments,  etc.,  but 
the  broth  is  a  burdensome  by-product  on  account  of  its  great  decomposing 
qualities.  It  can  be  utilized  only  to  a  certain  extent  at  such  places  where  it 
can  be  immediately  and  freshly  used  as  a  soil  fertilizer. 

Flaying  Disinfector. — Similar  to  the  simple  digester,  the  flaying 
disinfector  of  Rietschel  and  Henneberg  resembles  the  simple  digester, 
but  its  construction  is  more  advantageous.  It  is  also  equipped  with 
accessory  apparatus  for  an  improved  method  of  obtaining  the  fat  and 
for  the  condensation  of  the  evaporations.  The  apparatus  is  based 
on  the  system  first  employed  by  De  La  Croix,  veterinary  director  of 
the  Antwerp  abattoirs  for  the  utilization  of  the  animal  parts.  Drying 
and  comminuting  of  the  cooked  masses  are  accomplished  by  special 
mechanisms. 

The  old  Hartmann's  extraction  apparatus  is  similar  to  the  flaying 
disinfector. 

In  the  apparatus  already  described,  the  rendering  process  with  the 
steam  in  the  digesters  is  only  preparatory.  Afterward  it  is  necessary 
to  transport  the  non-liquid  masses  from  the  digester  to  the  drying 
and  grinding  contrivances.  The  following  rendering  methods  possess 
the  advantage  that  the  entire  process  is  carried  out  in  one  and  the 
same  apparatus.  The  latter  is  not  opened  during  the  rendering  and 
processing,  and  at  the  end  only  the  finished  products  are  apparent. 

Pod&vil's  System. — Podewil's  system,  which  has  been  in  use  for 
twenty-three  years,  was  first  to  inaugurate  horizontally  constructed, 
rotating  drums  for  the  steaming  of  animal  parts,  and  in  this  way  made 
possible  the  sterilization,  drying,  and  grinding  of  the  product  in  a 
single  closed  apparatus.  The  construction  of  Podewil's  system,1  which 
in  the  course  of  years  has  been  variously  improved,  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  71. 

Podewil's  rotating  drum  consists  of  an  inside  cylinder,  an  outside  heat 
jacket,  and  also  heatable  double  bottoms.  An  accessory  receptacle  called  hot 
water  boiler  is  also  supplied  with  steam-heating  arrangements  for  the  heat- 
ing of  the  washing  fluid  which  it  contains.  The  liquid  conduit  pipe  (Z)  and 
the  fat  conduit  pipe  (F)  are  connected  with  the  drum  by  hollandic  screw- 
ing, and  are  easily  taken  off.  With  the  fat  conduit  is  connected  a  Liebig's 
cooler  (K)  and  a  gas  separator  (G).  The  steam  is  conveyed  and  the  condensed 
water  from  the  heat  jacket  is  led  off  through  one  of  the  hollow  bearing  plugs 
of  the  apparatus,  while  the  steam  from  the  interior  of  the  cylinder  is  drawn 
off  through  the  other  bearing  plug. 

1  Manufactured  by  the  Podewil  factories  in  Au^sberg. 


1S4 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


For  rendering  large  undivided  animal  carcasses  (as  for  instance  in  anthrax 
and  glanders)  there  has  been  recently  constructed  Podewil's  drum  (Fig.  70), 
with  double  manhole,  one  of  which  is  of  such  a  size  that  even  large  carcasses 
can  be  placed  undivided  into  the  drum. 

Accessory  machines  are  necessary,  such  as  steam  boiler,  steam  engine,  or 
other  motors,  and  an  air  pump  with  a  condenser. 


FIG.  70 


Section  through  PodewiPs  drum  with  specially  large  manhole. 

Description  of  the  Operation. — The  carcass  or  material  is  introduced  into 
the  Podewil  apparatus  through  the  manhole  (AT);  the  manhole  is  then  closed 
steam  tight,  and  the  air  is  removed  from  the  apparatus  by  the  aid  of  an  air 
pump.  At  the  same  time  the  fluid  in  the  hot  water  boiler  is  heated  with  boiler 
steam  to  3  atmospheres  of  pressure.  Next  a  portion  of  the  heated  fluid  is  pressed 
by  the  conduit  (Z)  into  the  apparatus,  and  the  heat  jacket  is  heated  by 
boiler  steam,  which  causes  a  pressure  of  3  atmospheres  to  develop  in  the  interior 
of  the  cylinder.  This  pressure  is  maintained  for  about  four  hours,  and  the 
apparatus  is  from  time  to  time  rotated.  Through  the  action  of  the  hot  fluid, 
all  disease  germs  are  destroyed  with  a  certainty,  the  carcass  is  cooked  to  a  pulp, 
and  the  fat  substances  are  separated.  The  remaining  quantity  of  fluid  from 
the  hot  water  boiler  is  then  pressed  over  into  the  apparatus;  thus  the  inside 
of  the  cylinder  is  filled  to  the  top,  and  the  material  is  again  washed  through 
and  lixiviated.  The  fat  swimming  on  the  surface  then  flows  through  the  opened 
cock  (F]  into  the  conduit  (F),  passes  the  cooler  (K)  and  gas  separator  (G), 
and  is  drawn  through  the  drawing  pipe  (R)  in  a  pure  cooled  state  into  fat 
barrels  in  a  condition  for  immediate  sale. 

The  removal  of  the  fat  is  followed  immediately  by  the  drying  of  the  other 
products  in  the  Podewil  apparatus.  Preceding  this  a  quantity  of  fluid  like  that 
which  has  been  taken  from  the  boiler  is  returned  in  order  to  be  used  again  in 
a  similar  way  during  the  next  operation. 

The  drying  and  grinding  of  the  carcass  material  is  accomplished  by  the  action 
of  the  boiler  steam  led  into  the  heat  jacket,  which  thoroughly  dries  the 
material  in  about  six  hours,  and  with  aid  of  the  roller  (W),  which  lies  free  in 
the  rotating  apparatus,  it  is  converted  into  a  finely  ground  dry  product  ready 
for  the  market  (meat  flour).  After  the  manhole  (M)  is  opened  and  the  rota- 
tion is  continued  for  about  ten  minutes  longer,  the  apparatus  is  emptied  into 
the  carts  placed  under  the  opening. 

The  vapors  from  the  products  developed  during  the  drying  process  inside 
of  the  cylinder  are  sucked  out  through  the  curved  pipe  by  the  air  pump  and 


I\S]>ECTION  OF  THE  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS 


185 


are  then  conveyed  into  a  condensator,  where  they  are  mixed  with  water  and 
condensed.  This  condensation  water  is  the  only  waste  water  obtained;  it  is 
entirely  uninjurious,  and  is  drained  off  as  clean  water  into  the  sewer  or  into 
the  sinking  hole.  The  slight  quantities  of  uncondensible  gases  are  conveyed 
under  the  fire  grate  of  the  steam  boiler  and  are  burned  there. 

The  pure  hot  water  condensed  in  the  heat  jacket  of  the  apparatus  is  refed 
into  the  steam  boiler.  The  entire  process  lasts  only  ten  to  twelve  hours. 

The  utilization  of  fat  and  animal  flour  by  PodewiPs  method  depends  naturally 
on  the  material  to  be  worked  up.  In  the  rendering  works  of  Dresden,  by 
a  mixed  working  of  carcasses  and  meat-inspection  condemnations,  a  yearly 
average  of  10  per  cent,  fat  and  20.87  per  cent,  animal  flour  was  obtained.  The 
latter  consisted  in  the  average  of  9.64  per  cent,  nitrogen  (60.22  per  cent,  raw 
protein),  12.70  per  cent,  fat,  18.87  per  cent,  ash  (in  which  7.19  per  cent,  phos- 
phoric acid  was  contained),  and  6.91  per  cent,  water.  The  animal  flour  on 
account  of  its  large  quantity  of  nitrogen,  fat,  and  phosphoric  acid  is  a  valuable 
fattening  food  substance  for  hogs,  cattle,  fowls,  and  fish.  Glage's  extensive 
researches  have  shown  that  it  is  uninjurious. 


FIG.  71 


Section  through  the  apparatus  of  Podewil's  system. 

Hartmanris  System. — Rud.  A.  Hartmann's  system  of  Berlin  (Fig.  72)  is 
similar  to  Podewil's  system.  It  is  distinguished  by  a  perforated  drum,  which 
rotates  inside  of  a  double  walled,  stationary  drum;  by  rendering  without  the 
action  of  direct  steam,  which  is  produced  in  the  evaporator  by  steam  from 
the  boiler  and  is  conveyed  from  the  evaporator  to  the  extractor;  and  also  by 
the  continual  separation  of  the  fat  and  glue  water  during  the  cooking.  The 
illustration  shows  the  design  of  the  entire  system  of  Hartmann's  apparatus, 
which  consists  of  5  single  containers  fed  by  pipes.  The  large  horizontal  cylin- 
drical container  is  the  extraction  and  drying  apparatus  proper.  It  contains 
within  a  perforated  drum  which  receives  the  raw  material,  and  which  can  be 
rotated  by  the  engine  (a).  Here  the  carcass  material  is  steamed  through, 
extracted,  and  finally  dried  to  animal  flour  ready  for  the  market.  The  fluids 
extracted  from  the  raw  material — fat,  glue,  and  broth — flow  through  the  pipe 
(6)  into  the  second  container,  which  is  the  fat  separator,  in  which  the  fat  is 
separated  from  the  glue  broth.  The  fat  collects  in  the  upper  conical  part  of 
the  container,  becomes  visible  on  the  indication  glass  (c)  attached  to  it,  and 
can  be  drawn  off  by  opening  the  valve  (rf),  which  is  applied  at  the  highest  point 
to  the  fat  tank,  while  the  defattened  glue  broth  passes  spontaneously  into 
the  third  container,  the  receiver.  The  pipe  (e)  connects  the  receiver  with  the 
extraction  apparatus.  From  the  receiver  the  glue  broth  is  periodical!}"  con- 


186 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


veyed  by  the  opening  of  cock  (/)  into  the  fourth  container  to  the  so-called  evapo- 
rator in  order  to  be  here  evaporated  to  a  gelatinous  consistence  with  the  aid 
of  a  coiled  heating  arrangement. 

The  steam  developed  in  this  process  from  the  glue  broth  is  not  conveyed 
to  special  condensation  arrangements  and  precipitated  with  cold  water,  as  in 
the  old  apparatuses,  but  it  is  returned  to  the  extractor  in  order  to  serve  as 
working  steam  for  the  cooking  and  drying  process. 

For  this  purpose  a  pipe  (.7)  leads  from  the  evaporator  to  the  extractor,  which 
divides  into  two  branches,  of  which  the  one  (/?)  can  be  closed  by  a  valve  arid 
leads  to  the  inside  of  the  apparatus,  and,  therefore,  to  the  raw  material,  while 
the  other  (?)  can  be  also  closed  by  a  valve,  and  is  led  into  the  jacket  which 
envelops  the  entire  extraction  apparatus.  This  pipe  permits  the  utilization 
of  the  steam  which  develops  in  the  evaporator  from  the  glue  broth,  according 


FIG.  72 


To  air 

pittnp 


Model  of  Hartmann's  system  of  carcass-destruction  and  utilization  apparatus. 


to  the  desire,  either  for  the  steaming  or  for  the  drying  of  the  carcass  material. 
The  water  extracted  thereby  in  the  form  of  steam  from  the  evaporator  reaches 
either  the  extractor  or  the  jacket  and  returns  again  through  the  cock  (b) 
or  cock  (p)  into  the  fat  separator  and  the  receiver.  Accordingly  a  constant  circu- 
lation of  the  water  originating  from  the  carcass  itself  takes  place  in  the  appa- 
ratus. Therefore  the  more  water  is  abstracted  in  the  form  of  steam  from  the 
evaporator,  the  more  concentrated  will  the  glue  broth  become,  until  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  working  process  the  finished  thickened  glue  jelly  is  obtained 
in  the  evaporator.  At  that  time  the  finished  dried  animal  flour  is  obtained 
in  the  extractor,  while  the  distilled  meat  water  remains  in  the  receiver  and 
in  the  fat  separator;  the  fat,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  already  drawn  off 
into  the  fat  container  during  the  working  process. 

The  fifth  container  is  placed  above  the  extractor  and  serves  as  a  temporary 
receiver  for  the 'thickened  glue  broth.     If  it  is  desired  to  work  up  together  the 


OF   THE  XLAC(UITKRKl)   AMMALS  1X7 

extracted  meat  and  bone  masses  with  the  glue  jelly  to  a  slue-containing  animal 
flour,  the  glue  broth  can  then  he  easily  conveyed  again  to  the  extractor. 

The  opening  in  the  extractor  which  can  be  closed  with  the  cover  (m)  is  of 
such  a  size  that  the  perforated  drum  may  be  placed  into  it  and  also  removed 
and  replaced  again  in  case  of  repair.  The  large  cover  opening,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  smallest  size  apparatus,  permits  also  the  introduction  of  undivided 
carcasses. 

The  interior  of  the  extractor  contains  the  revolvable  perforated  drum,  which 
is  closed  by  the  removable  cover  (/?),  and  on  the  external  circumference  it  is 
equipped  with  stirring  arms  (o). 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  extraction,  which  on  an  average  requires  four 
hours,  the  perforated  drum  is  rotated,  and  at  the  same  time  by  heating  the  double 
jacket,  the  drying  of  the  extracted  meat  and  bone  masses  contained  in  the 
extractor  is  carried  out.  The  material,  which  by  the  thorough  steaming  becomes 
entirely  soft,  is  ground  up  in  the  rotating  drum,  falls  through  the  sieve  holes, 
and  thus  reaches  the  space  between  the  moving  drum  and  the  heated  double 
jacket.  Here  it  is  seized  by  the  stirring  arms,  is  continuously  brought  in  con- 
tact with  new  areas  of  heated  surface,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  ground  to 
a  powder.  The  vapors  set  free  from  the  drying  product  are  sucked  out  with 
the  aid  of  a  wet  air  pump,  and  precipitated  by  direct  contact  with  cold  water. 
Other  non-condensible  gases  are  conveyed  under  the  furnace  and  are  burned 
there. 

The  drying  process  in  the  smaller  Hartmann  apparatus  is  calculated  to 
take  about  two  hours,  while  in  the  larger  ones  from  three  to  five  hours.  After 
this  time  the  entire  dried  product  is  contained  as  a  pulverized  animal  flour 
outside  of  the  sieve  drum,  and  can  be  emptied  from  the  apparatus  by  removing 
the  cover  and  turning  the  extractor  180°. 

The  water  of  evaporation  which  develops  in  the  extractor  during  the  drying 
process,- collects  in  the  accessory  containers,  namely,  the  fat  separator  and 
receiver,  which  are  emptied  before  the  commencement  of  the  drying  process. 
This  water  may  be  drained  from  them  into  the  sewer  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
working  process.  If  there  is  no  sewer,  the  waste  water  which  in  itself  is  clean 
and  sterile  is  collected  in  a  special  cooling  basin,  and  after  having  cooled  it 
is  drained  off  into  the  mill  trough. 

Recently  the  firms  Hochmuth,  in  Dresden,  as  well  as  Venuleth  and  Ellen- 
berger,  in  Darmstadt,  and  Grove,  in  Charlottenburg,  Berlin,  constructed 
apparatuses  which  are  based  on  the  same  principle  as  the  two  systems  described. 
While  the  last  two  have  not  yet  been  sufficiently  tested  in  practice,  the  cheap 
apparatus  of  Hochmuth  has  already  proved  very  useful  in  various  rendering 
works. 

Garth's  Apparatus. — Sterilization,  but  incomplete  comminution  of  animal 
parts,  is  obtained  by  Dr.  Garth's  collecting  container  and  destroying  apparatus1 
(Fig.  73). 

The  operation,  productiveness,  advantages,  and  defects  of  the  apparatus 
are  discussed  in  the  publications  of  Garth,  Clausen,  Resow  and  others. 

The  apparatus  consists  of  a  double-walled  container,  which  can  be  easily 
turned  by  hand  around  its  transverse  axis;  it  is  constructed  in  three  sizes  of 
300  to  800  kg.  contents.  If  the  apparatus  is  not  worked,  the  container  is  turned 
in  such  a  way  that  the  upper  opening  lies  at  a  man's  height.  After  opening 
the  closed,  gas-tight  valve  the  products  are  introduced  into  a  cylindrical  receiver 
and  fall  from  here,  after  they  have  passed  another  air-tight  closing  valve, 
into  the  inside  of  the  boiler.  A  removal  of  the  contents  is  impossible. 

When  the  working  up  of  the  product  is  to  take  place,  the  closing  head  is 
removed  and  a  cover  is  tightly  screwed  on.  For  ten  to  fourteen  hours  steam 
is  conveyed  into  the  interior  of  the  cleating  at  5  atmospheres'  pressure.  The 
fluid  constituents  may  be  drawn  off  into  the  receiver  standing  at  the  side  of  the 

1  Built  by  (Johrig  and   Leuchs  A-G.,  in  Darmstadt. 


188 


DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY  INSPECTORS 


apparatus;  the  fat  may  then  be  drawn  off  from  the  receiver.  In  the  side  of 
the  receiver  is  a  valve  which  allows  the  glue  water  to  mix  with  tap  water,  and 
this  fluid  is  carried  from  here  into  the  sewer.  During  steaming  the  container  is 
turned  to  mix  the  material  thorough^  and  to  offer  new  points  of  action  to  the 
steam. 

Fat,  glue  broth,  and  residues  are  obtained  as  end  products.  After  cooling, 
the  residues  form  a  brown,  soil-like,  crumbling  mass  intermixed  with  bones 
and  fibers,  which,  after  a  further  comminution,  is  utilized  as  food  for  hogs 
and  fowls. 

FIG.  73 


External  view  of  Dr.  Garth's  collecting  receptacle  and  destruction  apparatus. 

CHEMICAL  DESTRUCTION. — There  are  various  methods  for  chemical 
destruction  of  meat.  One  of  the  older  consists  in  the  treatment  of 
the  meat  with  sulphuric  acid  and  steam.  The  meat  is  placed  into 
acid  tanks  or  into  wooden  containers  lined  with  lead  sheets,  and  sul- 
phuric acid  at  45°  B.  is  added,  after  which  steam  is  conducted  into 
the  containers.  As  a  result,  a  breaking  up  and  loss  of  fat  in  the  meat 
take  place.  The  fat  is  skimmed  off,  and  the  remaining  shiny  pulpy 
mass  is  mixed  with  bonemeal,  lime  phosphate,  etc.,  and  dried.  In 
the  drying,  disagreeable  odors  develop,  and  consequently  the  method 
can  only  find  application  in  fertilizer  plants. 

Recently,  Franke  recommended  the  treatment  of  condemned  meat 
with  a  3  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  hydrate  (NaOH)  for  about  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  subsequently  boiling  it  for  two  to  three  hours  with  steam 
or  direct  fire,  until  a  complete  breaking  up  of  the  soft  parts.  This 


INSPECTION  OF  THE  SLAUGHTERED  ANIMALS 


189 


method  is  very  inexpensive  and  will  probably  be  more  widely  employed 
in  the  future;  it  yields  fat,  glue  broth,  and  alkaline  albumen.  Saponifi- 
cation  of  the  fat  does  not  occur. 

DRY  DISTILLATION. — The  dry  distillation  of  the  meat  is  not  used 
as  a  practical  method  of  disposal. 

BURNING. — Burning  of  small  parts  may  be  undertaken  at  any  place 
in  the  heating  arrangements  of  the  household,  and  is  without  a  doubt 
the  safest  method  of  disposition.  Where  steam  boilers  are  present 
even  larger  parts  and  divided  carcasses  of  large  animals  may  be  burned. 
This,  however,  is  not  economical,  and  also  injurious  to  the  walls  of 
the  boiler.  To  eliminate  this  disadvantage,  various  kinds  of  burning 
ovens  were  constructed,  of  which  those  of  Kori  prove  to  be  the  best. 

FIG.  74 


Longitudinal  section  through  one  of  Kori's  burning  ovens,  type  III. 


The  illustration  (Fig.  74)  represents  the  latest  construction  of  Kori's  burn- 
ing ovens,  type  III,  with  an  upper  slime  basin.  The  burning  oven  consists 
of  a  massively  built  wall  body,  the  surfaces  of  which,  coming  in  contact  with 
the  smoke  gases  and  fire,  are  constructed  of  the  best  fire  bricks,  while  the  other 
wall  work  consists  of  brick  stones.  Besides  every  apparatus  receives  a  reinforce- 
ment of  strong  iron  U-rails,  which  are  fastened  together  by  strong  round  irons, 
both  long  and  crosswise.  The  operation  is  carried  out  in  the  following  way: 

The  solid  offal,  condemned  meats,  etc.,  are  thrown  without  consideration 
of  their  kind  through  the  opening  (E  T)  into  the  burning  chamber  (V  R), 
and  thence  to  the  cast-iron  basin  (Sch.B  II),  and  from  here  on  the  slanting 


KM  I  DECISIONS  OF   VETERINARY   INSPECTORS 

surface  of  the  arching  (G  /,  G  II).  The  latter  consists  of  specially  constructed 
perforated  fire  bricks,  which  are  horizontally  continued  (G  III).  The  coal  flame 
produced  in  the  so-called  main  fire  box  ( HF)  reaches  in  the  greatest  part  directly 
to  the  burning  chamber  (VR),  and  consumes  the  products  which  are  accumu- 
lated there,  while  a  small  part  reaches  through  the  canal  (K),  directly  under 
the  perforated  arching  (G  II),  drying  and  igniting  the  offal  lying  on  it. 

To  make  possible  the  burning  of  pulpy  and  thin  liquid  material  without  any 
other  addition,  and  without  disturbing  the  burning  process  proper  in  the 
chamber  (VR),  the  stove  is  extended  in  its  upper  part  into  another  small  chamber 
(OVR),  into  which  a  flat  but  broad  basin  (Sch.BI)  is  built.  This  basin  can  be 
reached  from  the  opening  (E  I),  lying  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  opening  for 
receiving  the  materials,  and  in  order  to  make  this  accessible,  the  otherwise 
sloped  back  of  the  stove  is  made  with  a  platform  extension. 

The  flame  from  the  main  place  which  fills  the  burning  chamber  (VK)  leaves 
this  through  the  side  draft  opening  (F/7),  and  reaches  the  upper  burning 
chamber  (OVR),  in  which  it  passes  over  the  basin  (Sch.BI),  and  evaporates 
the  fluids  contained  therein,  thus  thickening  them.  This  is  accomplished 
in  about  five  hours,  then  with  the  hoisting  of  the  conical  valve  (KV)  in  the 
floor  of  the  basin  (#),  the  thickened  content  flows  or  is  pushed  down  into  the 
lower  burning  chamber  (VR),  where  its  complete  destruction  is  accomplished 
in  a  short  time. 

The  residues  remaining  in  the  chamber  (VR)  are  drawn  down  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  work,  with  the  aid  of  a  fire  hook,  to  the  grading  of  the  main 
firing,  where  the  complete  destruction  to  a  gray  ash  takes  place.  When  the 
burning  process  is  well  in  progress  it  is  advisable  to  restrict  direct  firing,  as 
the  meat  masses  falling  from  time  to  time  into  the  fire  replace  the  burning 
material. 

Where  it  is  accessible,  the  destructor  is  connected  with  the  smokestack  of  the 
steam  boiler.  The  burning  ovens  of  Kori  give  good  satisfaction  everywhere,  and 
work  very  inexpensively. 

BURIAL. — Burial  of  meat  occurs  principally  in  flat  countries,  after 
the  meat  has  been  previously  denatured  (page  183).  The  ditch  should 
be  laid  out  so  that  the  surface  of  the  meat  may  be  covered  with  a 
layer  of  earth  of  at  least  1  m.  thickness.  According  to  the  regulations 
of  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law,  trichinous  meat  is  not  allowed 
to  be  disposed  of  by  burial. 

[Condemned  carcasses  or  parts,  as  well  as  condemned  meat  and  its 
products,  and  the  offals  of  the  abattoir,  are  rendered  in  the  United 
States  in  tanks,  also  called  digesters.  Such  tanks  are  usually  installed 
in  abattoirs,  and  in  the  larger  establishments  a  large  number  of  such 
tanks  are  placed  in  the  so-called  tank-house  or  tank-room.  The  tanks, 
which  receive  the  condemned  meat,  are  sealed  by  a  Federal  employee, 
who  also  supervises  the  tanking  of  the  condemned  material.  After 
the  process  of  rendering  is  concluded,  the  seal  is  broken  by  the  Federal 
employee  and  the  contents  of  the  tank  are  also  removed  under  his 
supervision  (see  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  16,  Sections  1  to  3). 
In  the  rendering  process  the  regulations  prescribe  a  forty  pound  steam 
pressure,  producing  a  temperature  of  288°  F.,  which  should  be  main- 
tained for  not  less  than  six  hours.  Before  tanking  the  meat  is  always 
denatured.  Through  the  rendering  process  all  of  the  solids  are  thor- 
oughly disintegrated,  forming  a  pulpy  mass.  The  grease  is  then  drawn 
off  through  a  conveniently  placed  draw-off  valve,  and  the  product 
is  stored  and  shipped  with  the  word  "inedible"  marked  on  the  con- 


INSPECTION  OF  ME  A  T  IMPORTED  FROM  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES    191 

tainers.  After  the  fat  is  drawn  off,  the  residue  of  the  tank  is  dumped 
into  a  scrap  vat  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  settle,  the  grease  is  next  skimmed 
off  and  the  residue  is  placed  again  into  the  tank  for  the  next  cooking. 
Then  the  residue  is  placed  in  a  press,  usually  a  hydraulic  press,  where 
it  is  separated  from  all  the  moisture  and  grease,  the  dry  substance 
being  then  prepared  for  fertilizers.  In  various  places  the  tank  water, 
which  contains  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  solids,  is  utilized  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  ammonia.  The  entire  rendering  process  in  the  tanks  requires 
from  eight  to  ten  hours.] 

INSPECTION  OF  MEAT  IMPORTED  FROM  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 

The  decisions  of  the  inspectors  and  the  treatment  of  meat  imported 
from  foreign  countries   after  inspection  must  be  in  accordance  with 
the  regulations  of  the  imperial  meat-inspection  law. 
The  decision  may  be  one  of  the  following: 

(a)  Passed  and  admitted  for  traffic  in  the  state. 

(6)  Condemned  and  rejected  from  importation.  % 

(c)  Condemned  with  harmless  disposal. 

(d)  Condemned  and  admitted  after  rendering  it  useless. 

These  decisions  may  extend  in  accordance  with  the  conditions  in 
fresh  meat,  to  the  entire  shipment,  to  single  carcasses,  to  single  affected 
parts;  and  in  prepared  meat,  to  the  entire  shipment,  to  single  packages, 
or  to  single  pieces  of  meat. 

All  final  decisions  are  made  by  the  inspection  office  in  accordance 
with  the  opinion  of  the  veterinarian  assigned  for  the  inspection,  to 
whom  the  results  of  the  chemical  examinations,  if  such  were  necessary, 
should  be  reported  in  writing. 

The  police  authorities  have  control  of  the  further  treatment  of 
condemned  meat. 

The  marking  of  the  meat  (page  172)  is  carried  out  in  accordance 
with  the  regulations,  with  colored  or  branding  stamps  on  the  meat 
proper,  -and  on  the  containers. 

In  condemnations  the  meat  should  be  temporarily  retained,  and 
provided  with  a  suitable  identification  mark.  Immediate  notice  of 
the  retention  should  be  given  to  the  disposal  authorities  of  the  customs 
and  tax  office,  as  well  as  to  the  police  authorities  designating  the  cause 
of  the  condemnation. 

The  harmless  disposal  of  condemned  imported  meat  has  to  be  carried 
out  under  the  same  conditions  as  for  native  meat. 

For  rendering  useless  foreign  meat  which  is  not  permitted  for  con- 
sumption, the  regulations  give  the  necessary  orders. 

Prohibition  for  importation  into  Germany  applies  at  the  present  time  to 
dog  meat,  prepared  horse  meat,  sausages,  and  other  mixtures  from  comminuted 
horse  meat,  meat  in  air-tight,  closed  boxes,  or  similar  containers;  pickled  meat, 
if  the  weight  of  a  single  pirn'  is  less  than  4  kg.;  fresh  beef  and  veal  from  Belgium, 
Russia,  Roumania,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  America;  and  fresh  mutton,  goat  meat, 
and  pork  from  Russia,  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria. 


CHAPTER    VII 

ABNORMAL  CONDITIONS  AND   DISEASES   OF  FOOD-PRODUCING 

ANIMALS 

PECULIARITIES    WITHIN   PHYSIOLOGICAL   LIMITS 

Fetuses  and  Dead-born  Animals. — Unscrupulous  butchers  some- 
times attempt  to  place  the  meat  of  almost  mature  fetuses  or  dead- 
born  animals  on  the  market  as  normal  veal.  If  this  meat  is  worked 
into  various  preparations  it  can  only  be  found  out,  as  a  rule,  by  obtain- 
ing trustworthy  information;  it  is  very  difficult  to  recognize  in  meat 
products.  At  best,  the  high  glycogen  content  (see  page  54)  of  meat 
mixtures  might  be  an  indication,  as  fetal  meat  contains  a  relatively 
large  amount  of  this  carbohydrate. 

Postmortem  Examination. — The  undressed  carcass  of  a  calf  fetus 
presents  the  following:  Soft  claws  with  untouched  convex  sole-pads; 
remains  of  the  umbilical  cord  hanging  from  the  open  navel  ring;  um- 
bilical vessels  open,  containing  fluid  blood;  sometimes  the  throat  is 
cut  or  is  so  stuck  as  to  simulate  slaughter  by  bleeding,  but  the  edges 
of  the  wound  are  not  infiltrated  by  blood.  The  dressed  carcass  shows 
the  following: 

Gaping  condition  of  the  umbilical  vessels,  in  which  the  points  of 
origin  of  the  arteries  from  the  internal  pudenda  artery  should  be  espe- 
cially noticed;  open  urachus;  stomach  and  intestines  free  of  coagulated 
milk;  absence  of  milk  feces;  lungs  atelectatic  if  they  were  not  blown 
up  by  the  butcher;  muscles  loose,  flabby,  and  watery;  so,  likewise, 
is  the  undeveloped  fat  tissue,  especially  around  the  kidneys,  which 
is  jelly  like;  bone  marrow  is  red. 

Judgment. — As  the  consumption  of  fetal  meat  would  awaken  a  feel- 
ing of  repulsion  in  most  cases,  such  meat  should  be  considered  as  unfit 
for  human  food.  [B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  27.] 

Immature  Animals. — Only  calves  which  are  too  young  come  into 
consideration  here,  as  young  pigs,  lambs,  and  kids  are  consumed  when 
only  a  few  days  old.  Calves  are  considered  mature  or  mature  for 
slaughter  when  the  meat  and  fat  have  attained  a  certain  development, 
which,  as  a  rule,  is  only  reached  within  eight  to  ten  days  after  birth. 
However,  the  requirements  of  the  public  relative  to  this  vary  greatly. 
In  North  Germany,  especially  in  Mecklenburg  and  Holstein,  calves 
are  frequently  slaughtered  as  so-called  "fasting  calves"  when  only 
three  or  four  days  old,  and  even  shortly  after  birth ;  but  they  are  allowed 
to  become  much  older  in  South  Germany,  being  generally  two  to  three 


PECULIARITIES   WITHIN  PHYSIOLOGICAL  LIMITS          193 

weeks  old.  Young  pigs  (roasting  pigs),  lambs  (Easter  lambs),  and 
kids  are  considered  mature  for  slaughter  at  an  age  of  about  three  or 
four  weeks. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  meat  of  immature  calves  is  very  moist, 
loose,  ten,der,  and  tears  easily;  can  be  perforated  with  the  fingers, 
and  is  grayish  red.  The  muscular  development,  as  a  whole,  is  but 
slight,  which  can  be  especially  noticed  on  the  leg  (upper  shank).  The 
tissue,  which  later  develops  as  the  fat  capsule  of  the  kidneys,  is  edema- 
tous,  dirty  yellow,  or  grayish  red,  tough,  and  intermixed  with  some 
islands  of  fat.  For  characteristic  signs  of  the  age,  see  page  33. 

Judgment. — According  to  the  German  meat-inspection  regulations 
immature  or  insufficiently  developed  calves  should  be  declared  of 
inferior  quality. 

The  same  practice  should  be  followed  with  the  immature  meat  of 
other  animals. 

[In  the  United  States  the  regulations  provide  that  calves,  pigs, 
kids,  and  lambs  under  three  wreeks  of  age  should  be  condemned. 
(See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  27.)] 

Emaciated  Animals. — Emaciation  must  not  be  confused  with  lean- 
ness. 

Leanness  is  a  physiological  condition  which  may  coincide  with 
perfect  health  of  the  individual,  and  the  animal  after  slaughter  may 
show  no  disease,  or  only  insignificant  indications  of  diseased  changes. 
Leanness  can  be  observed  in  all  animals  which  are  in  the  stage  of 
development;  in  most  of  the  male  breeding  animals,  in  cows  which 
are  in  a  period  of  strong  lactation,  and  in  poorly  nourished  animals, 
or  in  those  not  properly  taken  care  of. 

The  meat  of  lean  animals  contains  a  small  amount  of  fat,  but  is 
otherwise  firm,  tense,  and,  as  a  rule,  darker  in  color  than  normal,  and 
sometimes  the  connective  tissue  appears  strongly  developed,  which 
causes  toughness  of  the  meat. 

Emaciation  is  always  the  result  of  disease  or  old  age,  and  is  char- 
acterized by  a  retrogression  of  the  general  nutritive  condition  below 
the  normal.  In  well-marked  cases,  and  when  associated  with  a  pro- 
nounced loss  of  strength,  it  is  designated  as  cachexia.  Emaciation 
may  develop  rapidly  in  febrile  diseases.  Occasionally  anemic  and 
liydremic  conditions  are  associated  with  emaciation. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  following  characteristics  are  noted 
on  living  animals:  Marked  projections  of  prominent  portions  of  the 
bones,  sunken  muscles,  flabby  skin  without  elasticity  and  laid  in  folds 
with  much  desquamation,  scrubby,  dull  hair,  tired  look  from  sunken 
eyes,  and  decided  weakness  when  in  motion,  with  relaxed  muscles 
while  standing. 

In  slaughtered  animals,  the  most  striking  appearance  is  shown 
in  emaciated  hogs,  as  with  the  exception  of  boars  and  brood  sows 
these  animals  are  generally  slaughtered  in  a  fattened  condition,  unless 
the  slaughter  is  necessitated  by  disease.  In  general,  absence  of  fat 
in  all  emaciated  animals  is  noted  first  in  the  subcutis,  which  is  shrunken 
13 


194  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

away  like  all  other  places  of  fat  deposit,  and  is  replaced  by  a  loose 
yellowish  or  reddish,  more  moist,  and  even  jelly-like  tissue.  Advanced 
changes  are  naturally  dependent  upon  more  severe  cases,  which  are 
especially  distinguished  by  pronounced  changes  of  the  kidney  fat. 
The  muscular  tissues  are  atrophied,  sunken,  loose,  pale,  more  moist, 
and  very  rich  in  connective-tissue  elements.  Lymph  glands  and 
lymphoid  tissue  are  frequently  very  prominent  in  young  individuals, 
while  they  may  be  atrophied  in  older  subjects.  Bone  marrow  is,  in 
advanced  cases,  poor  in  fat,  red,  watery;  or,  in  older  animals,  even 
slimy.  Sometimes,  also,  signs  of  atrophy  of  the  liver  and  spleen  are 
noted. 

Judgment. — The  judging  of  the  meat  of  emaciated  animals  depends 
on  the  cause  of  emaciation  and  upon  its  degree.  In  marked  sub- 
stantial changes  of  the  meat,  or  if  complete  emaciation  is  the  result 
of  disease,  the  meat  must  be  considered,  according  to  the  regulations, 
as  unfit  for  human  consumption.  This  applies  also  to  all  cases  in  which 
the  existing  original  disease  would  in  itself  exclude  utilization  of  the 
meat.  In  all  other  cases,  the  meat  represents  a  food  of  inferior  value 
according  to  the  regulations. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  24,  car- 
casses which  show  advanced  emaciation  should  be  condemned;  the 
association  of  the  emaciation  writh  a  disease  condition  wrould  naturally 
exclude  the  carcass  for  food  purposes.] 

Abnormal  Odor  and  Taste  of  Meat. — Sexual  Peculiarities. — Abnor- 
malities of  odor  and  taste  in  meat,  associated  with  sexual  activity, 
are  manifested  in  the  most  pronounced  form  in  boars  and  male  goats, 
and  then  in  cryptorchid  boars. 

Findings. — A  specific  odor  of  the  meat  is  always  perceived  in  old 
boars  immediately  after  slaughter;  it  resembles  the  odor  of  living 
boars,  and  is  designated  as  a  urine-like  or  sexual  odor.  Although 
this  gradually  diminishes  through  cooling  the  meat,  it  again  becomes 
marked  as  soon  as  the  meat  is  warmed  by  boiling  or  roasting. 

Therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  undertake  a  boiling  test  (page  149)  with  the 
meat  of  every  boar  twenty-four  hours  after  slaughter.  The  odor  is  most  per- 
ceptible when  the  boiled  meat  begins  to  cool.  In  doubtful  cases  the  odor  test 
should  be  made  by  several  persons.  The  characteristic  repulsive  odor  is  also 
accompanied  by  a  similar  taste. 

Besides  the  disagreeable  odor  and  taste,  the  meat  of  boars  possesses 
also  a  peculiar  toughness,  and  the  skin  of  the  back,  shoulders,  neck, 
and  chest  walls  is  of  a  cartilaginous  hardness  (Schild). 

As  the  boar  odor  is  retained  for  some  time  after  castration,  recently 
castrated  animals  must  be  judged  like  those  not  castrated.  Careful 
attention  should  be  given  to  so-called  stags. 

In  larger  abattoirs,  where  the  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection  is 
seldom  made  by  the  same  person,  it  is  advisable  to  practise  care  in  meat  inspec- 
tion, for  butchers,  as  a  rule,  remove  the  testicles  with  a  portion  of  the  scrotum 
in  dressing  the  animal.  In  such  cases  the  cutting  away  of  the  skin  on  the 


PECULIARITIES   WITHIN  PHYSIOLOGICAL  LIMITS          195 

inside  of  the  thigh  is  conspicuous,  which,  in  connection  with  other  sexual 
peculiarities  (thickness  of  the  skin,  penis,  or  its  roots  at  the  notch  of  the  pubis, 
and  the  marked  development  of  the  bulbocavernosus  muscle),  must  excite 
suspicion. 

In  meat  of  cryptorchid  boars  the  sexual  odor  is  almost  invariably 
present  if  the  retained  testicles  possess  functional  activity.  At  any 
rate,  it  is  advisable  to  condemn  temporarily  every  cryptorchid  boar 
until  a  boiling  test  with  the  cooled  meat  can  be  made. 

Meat  of  male  goats  has  a  very  pronounced  disagreeable,  goatish 
odor  and  taste,  resembling  the  odor  of  the  living  animal.  The  boiling 
test  with  the  cooled  meat  is  decisive. 

Meat  of  specially  strong  full-fleshed  bulls  may,  according  to  Goltz, 
develop  an  exceptionally  noticeable  odor,  which  is  similar  to  the  odor 
from  the  skin  of  these  animals  in  life,  and  which  is  also  manifested 
after  boiling. 

Before  being  chilled  the  meat  of  rams  has  frequently  a  slight  peculiar 
odor  which  is  quite  noticeable,  but  it  cannot  be  designated  as  repulsive. 
For  judgment  of  such  meat,  see  page  196. 

Influences  of  Feeding.— As  a  result  of  extensive  feeding  with  fish, 
which  sometimes  occurs  near  the  sea  coasts,  the  meat,  and  especially 
the  fat  of  hogs,  acquires  a  fishy  odor  and  taste.  Extensive  feeding 
of  garbage  (food  remnants  and  offal  from  hotels,  institutions,  etc.) 
gives  meat  an  insipid,  rancid  odor  and  taste,  and  changes  the  consist- 
ence of  the  meat  and  fat. 

After  feeding  fenugreek,  meat,  according  to  observations  made  in 
France,  acquires  an  odor  and  taste  resembling  that  of  hog  manure. 
This  may  also  occur  in  calves  given  milk  from  cows  fed  with  this 
plant. 

Oilman  observed  a  rancid  odor  and  a  soapy  taste  in  the  meat  of 
lambs  fed  with  beets  in  which  fermentation  had  begun  to  develop. 

The  flesh  of  poultry  acquires  an  oily  flavor  in  animals  fattened  with 
oil  seed,  oil  cake,  colza,  or  hempseed;  and  a  fishy  odor  and  taste  from 
feeding  with  fish.  Turnips  are  supposed  to  produce  a  bitter  taste, 
and  pond  mussels  also  cause  a  very  disagreeable  flavor  in  the  meat 
of  ducks. 

All  these  abnormalities  of  odor  and  taste  produced  by  the  influence 
of  food  are,  as  a  rule,  only  perceivable  after  heating  the  meat.  For 
judgment  of  the  meat,  see  page  196. 

Absorption  of  Odors. — The  ingestion  and  administration  of  odor- 
producing  substances  in  the  body  of  animals  may  also  cause  an  abnormal 
odor  and  flavor  in  the  meat.  While  not  always  strictly  within  the 
physiological  limits,  they  may,  however,  be  mentioned  here.  These 
substances  may  be  taken  up  accidentally,  or  may  be  administered  as 
medicines,  and  especially  come  into  consideration  in  emergency 
slaughter.  Among  the  more  important  to  which  attention  should 
be  called  are:  Ether,  anise,  asafetida,  baldrian,  benzin,  camphor, 
carbolic  acid,  chloroform,  petroleum,  tar,  and  fennel. 

It  is  especially  noteworthy  that  inhalations  of  carbolic  acid,  chlorine, 


196  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

ether,  and  chloroform  vapors  by  animals  cause  their  meat  to  absorb 
the  corresponding  abnormalities  of  odor  and  taste.  This  may  occur 
in  stable  and  railroad  stock-car  disinfection. 

These  odors  may  be  manifested  to  a  high  degree  in  freshly  slaughtered 
animals,  but  they  appear  most  distinct  after  boiling  or  roasting  the  meat. 

Judgment. — Meat  which  possesses  to  a  high  degree  a  repulsive  odor 
or  flavor  is,  according  to  the  regulations,  unfit  for  human  food.  Meat 
having  a  fishy  odor  or  taste,  and  all  meats  which  possess  deviations 
of  these  peculiarities  to  a  moderate  degree,  should  be  declared  of  an 
inferior  quality.  [According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13, 
Section  20,  carcasses  giving  off  urine  or  sexual  odors  should  be  con- 
demned.] 

For  deviations  in  the  odor  and  taste  of  meat  of  diseased  animals, 
and  those  with  intestinal  parasites,  see  Chapters  VII  and  VIII,  pages 
207  to  322.  For  postmortem  abnormalities  of  odor,  see  Chapter  IX, 
page  323. 

Animals  in  Advanced  Pregnancy.— It  is  generally  believed  among 
butchers  that  the  meat  of  animals  in  advanced  pregnancy  is  of  inferior 
quality,  because  it  contains  more  moisture,  has  a  looser  consistence, 
and  therefore  does  not  keep  so  well,  and  is  not  suitable  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  sausages  which  require  keeping  qualities.  This,  however,  cannot 
be  in  general  substantiated.  There  are  cases  in  which  the  meat,  espe- 
cially of  the  hind-quarters,  possesses  these  peculiarities,  but  they  are 
restricted  principally  to  sows  in  the  last  stages  of  pregnancy. 

Judgment. — The  judgment  can,  therefore,  be  applied  only  to  cases 
individually,  and  must  be  directed  in  accordance  with  carefully  observed 
objective  finding  on  the  animal  itself. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  2(i, 
carcasses  of  animals  in  the  last  stages  of  pregnancy  (showing  signs 
of  parturition),  also  those  which  have  given  birth  to  young  within  ten 
days,  are  passed  for  lard  or  tallow,  provided  there  are  no  signs  of  septic 
infection.] 

If  the  terms  of  purchase  included  absence  of  pregnancy,  the  buyer  is  entitled 
to  claim  indemnification  from  the  seller.  For  this  purpose,  an  authorized  certifi- 
cation of  the  meat  inspector  is  required,  specifying  the  exact  weight  of  the 
pregnant  uterus,  and  from  which  the  weight  of  a  normal  uterus  must  be  de- 
ducted. The  latter,  on  the  average,  can  be  calculated  in  cattle  as  1*  kg-5 
in  hogs.  0.75  kg.;  and  in  sheep,  60  grams. 

Abnormal  Color  of  the  Fat. — An  intense  yellow  coloring  of  the  fat 
appears  in  old  cows  as  a  sign  of  advanced  age.  Feeding  also,  as  a  rule, 
influences  the  color  of  fat.  Cattle  principally  fattened  on  the  pasture, 
for  example,  possess  an  intensely  yellow  fat;  hogs  extensively  fed  on 
corn  or  cottonseed  meal  have  a  milder  yellow  coloration  of  the  fat. 
A  more  saturated,  dirty  yellow  color  is  observed  in  the  fat  of  calves, 
nourished  on  cottonseed  meal  or  acorn  cake.  If  hogs  are  fed  on  fish  or 
garbage  the  fat  manifests  a  blackish-gray  or  grayish-yellow  coloration. 

According  to  Porcher,  the  yellow  coloration  which  results  from 
feeding  depends  upon  a  pigment  belonging  to  the  "lutein"  group.  It 
is  entirelv  distinct  from  bilirubin. 


PECULIARITIES   WITHIN  PHYSIOLOGICAL  LIMITS          197 

Lutein  is  soluble  in  chloroform,  amyl  alcohol,  common  alcohol,  benzin, 
turpentine,  and  ether;  bilirubin,  on  the  other  hand,  is  soluble  only  in  chloroform 
and  amyl  alcohol.  Lutein  has  two  absorption  bands  (green  blue,  and  blue); 
bilirubin  has  none.  Solutions  of  bilirubin  in  CHCL,  shaken  with  a  small 
quantity  of  soda  solution,  lose  the  pigment  rapidly,  while  the  lutein  does  not. 
Lutein  solutions  exposed  to  the  air  are  soon  discolored  while  those  of  bilirubin 
retain  their  color;  and  lutein  solutions  do  not  give  the  Ehrlich  reaction. 

Judgment. — Meat  and  fat  of  so-called  pasture  or  grass-fed  cattle 
should  not  be  condemned.  This  also  applies  to  calves  with  yellow 
coloration  of  fat.  Otherwise,  moderate  deviations  relative  to  color 
render  the  meat  of  a  lesser  quality.  In  more  marked  changes  of  color 
the  meat,  as  a  rule,  shows  also  abnormalities  of  odor  and  taste,  and 
should  be  judged  according  to  the  provisions  >of  the  regulations.  The 
discolorations  cannot  be  mistaken  for  jaundice  by  a  careful  inspector, 
as  in  the  yellow  coloration  resulting  from  feeding  the  fat  only  show^s 
the  yellow  color,  while  in  icteric  animals  all  connective-tissue  sub- 
stances, and  particularly  the  serous  membranes,  manifest  a  yellow 
coloration.  For  further  influences  on  the  meat  of  hogs  from  feeding 
upon  fish  and  garbage,  see  page  195. 

[Carcasses  showing  an  intense  yellow  or  greenish-yellow  discolora- 
tion after  proper  cooling  should  be  condemned.  (B.  A.  I.  Order  150, 
Regulation  13,  Section  19.)] 

Incompletely  Bled  Animals. — Since  the  aim  in  the  slaughter  of 
animals  is  to  abstract  as  much  blood  as  possible  from  the  body,  insuffi- 
cient bleeding  is  always  somewhat  unusual  and  conspicuous. 

Lesions. — An  unusual  blood  content  is  observed  in  the  viscera, 
especially  of  the  liver  and  intestinal  veins,  and  a  marked  fulness  is 
noted  in  the  ventricles  of  the  heart,  the  subcutaneous  veins,  and  those 
of  the  muscles,  which  also  contain  more  moisture.  The  spongy  parts 
of  the  bones  are  richer  in  blood,  and  under  certain  conditions  the  bone 
marrow  is  also.  In  accordance  with  the  degree  of  bleeding,  the  increased 
blood  content  is  more  or  less  marked. 

Judgment. — In  judgment  it  is  first  of  all  necessary  to  decide  the 
cause  of  insufficient  bleeding.  If  it  was  the  result  of  disease,  then  the 
nature  of  the  disease  is  the  standard  for  decision. 

If  insufficient  bleeding  results  as  a  consequence  of  long  transporta- 
tion, overexertion,  overfeeding,  heat  stroke,  lightning  stroke,  violent 
brain  or  spinal-cord  injuries,  sudden  internal  bleedings,  etc.,  the  meat 
is,  as  a  rule,  to  be  declared  of  inferior  quality.  But  there  may  also 
be  changes  which  render  the  meat  entirely  unfit  for  use. 

[Incomplete  bleeding  is  invariably  an  evidence  of  a  serious  condition 
of  the  animal  before  slaughter  and  carcasses  showing  these  indications 
should  be  condemned.] 

Exhausted  Animals. — Although  meat  of  exhausted  animals  usually  must 
be  judged  in  association  with  insufficient  bleeding,  there  are  instances  in  which 
the  meat  contains  some  other  peculiarities,  as  a  result  of  exhaustion.  Accord- 
ing to  Ficker,  the  exhaustion  of  animals  facilitates  considerably  the  penetration 
of  bacteria  through  the  intestinal  walls.  The  Bacillus  coli  was  demonstrated 
in  the  kidneys,  liver,  and  mesenteric  glands  of  exhausted  dogs,  and  Bacillus 


198  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

proteus  in  the  liver.  It  produces  a  similar  condition  as  in  the  dying  animal. 
This  also  explains  why  the  meat  of  exhausted  food  animals  spoils  soon  after 
slaughter,  while  it  will  keep  well  if  the  animals  rest  for  several  days  before 
being  put  to  death. 

Lesions. — The  color  of  the  meat  is,  according  to  Villain,  brown  or  dark  red, 
frequently  even  blackish;  the  odor  is  repulsive,  slightly  sour,  sometimes  re- 
sembling ether;  the  muscle  fibers  are  dry  in  cutting;  no  muscle  juice  oozes  out, 
and  the  meat  cuts  like  rubber;  hemorrhages  and  ruptures  occur  in  the  muscle 
fiber;  the  spongy  part  of  the  bones  is  dark,  the  bone  marrow  hemorrhagic,  and 
the  lymph  glands  injected.  The  muscles  are  supposed  to  contain  ten  times 
as  much  kreatin  as  normal  muscles. 

Judgment.— As  a  rule,  the  meat  of  exhausted  animals  acquires  pronounced 
repulsive  changes,  which  make  it  unfit  for  human  food. 

Dead  Animals. — Aniihals  are  slaughtered  sometimes  after  they 
have  died,  and  manipulations  are  undertaken  on  dead  animals  to  give 
the  appearances  of  slaughter  ("cold  slaughter").  Therefore,  the  meat 
of  dead  animals  sometimes  appears  for  inspection. 

Lesions. — Absence  of  signs  of  a  regular  slaughter;  complete  fulness 
of  all  the  venous  vessels,  especially  noticeable  in  the  liver,  intestines, 
and  subcutis;  a  varied  content  of  blood  in  the  lungs  and  kidneys  (hypo- 
stasis)  ;  marked  fluid  content  of  the  subcutis  and  muscles. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  dead  animals  is,  according  to  the  regula- 
tions, unfit  for  human  food. 

Whether  such  meat  is  objectively  unwholesome  depends  on  the 
cause  (disease,  accident)  of  death.  Furthermore,  meat  of  dead  animals 
undergoes  putrefactive  changes  very  soon  (see  page  197),  and  as  a  result 
may  be  rendered  unwholesome. 

The  meat  of  animals  seriously  ill,  as  from  injury,  stroke  of  light aing, 
cardiac  or  cerebral  apoplexy,  suffocation,  and  from  other  causes,  may 
receive  a  more  liberal  decision  if  some  blood  could  be  extracted  from 
the  body  and  the  dressing  were  hastily  performed  (see  page  197). 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Sections  29  and  30, 
animals  which  die  in  the  abattoirs  and  those  in  a  dying  condition 
should  be  condemned;  the  same  provision  is  made  for  suffocated  animals. 
Besides,  the  regulations  also  specify  that  the  carcasses  of  such  animals 
when  conveyed  to  the  tank  room  should  not  pass  through  the  com- 
partments in  which  food  products  are  prepared.] 


GENERAL  PATHOLOGICAL  CHANGES  AS  RELATED  TO  MEAT 

INSPECTION 

Disturbances  of  the  Circulation. — Hyperemia.— An  increased  quantity 
of  blood  in  various  parts  of  the  animal  body  may  occur  as  functional, 
active,  passive,  collateral,  or  inflammatory  hyperemia,  and  its  recognition 
is  not  difficult.  However,  it  should  be  remembered  that  all  changes  in 
organs  caused  by  the  quantity  of  blood  in  them  become,  with  rare 
exceptions  (local  active  hyperemia),  more  or  less  indistinct  after  the 
bleeding  of  slaughtered  animals.  On  the  other  hand,  after  natural 
death  or  insufficient  bleeding,  hyperemia  is  so  pronounced  that  it  may 


PLATE    I 


FIO.    1 


,-ells     containing     amorphous     blood     pigment:    a,  with     a     few     IM, 
broken-down    products;    6  and  c,  with  numer- 
of    red     blood     corpuscles.         B,    rhomi- 
hematoidin.      X  3OO.      (After  Ziegler.) 


® 


Cells  Containing  Hemosiderin  and  Hematoidin  from  mi 
Old  Hemorrhagic  Area  in  the  Brain  (Alkaline  Berlin  Blue 
Reaction). 


;,.  cells  witli 


Us  with  h  ells  whir 


I'ATHOUHIICAL   CHANGES   IN    MEAT  INM>K("riON  199 

serve  as  n  sign  for  recognition  of  these   last-named   conditions.     For 
judgment,  see  page  202. 

Hyperemia  should  not  be  confused  with  hemorrhagic  saturation  or  imbibi- 
tion, which  does  not  represent  an  engorgement  of  bloodvessels,  but  consists  of 
a  red  coloration  of  tissues  by  the  blood-coloring  matter,  dissolved  by  blood 
serum  (see  Septicemia  and  Putrefaction). 

Postmortem  spots  (cadaver  spots,  livid  areas,  postmortem  hypostasis)  are 
blue  discolorations  of  the  skin  of  dead  animals  which  result  from  the  tendency 
of  blood  after  death  to  sink  to  the  dependent  tissues,  finally  filling  the  capil- 
laries. 

Anemia. — This  condition,  which  is  characterized  by  a  local  deficiency 
of  blood  (ischemia)  in  the  respective  parts,  can  also  be  readily  detected; 
and  in  this  connection,  the  influence  of  stronger  or  lesser  bleeding 
should  always  be  taken  under  consideration.  For  disposition  of  such 
carcasses,  see  page  200. 

For  general  anemia,  see  Chapter  VII,  page  222. 

Hemorrhages. — In  the  occurrence  of  hemorrhages,  it  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  between  the  escape  of  blood  into  the  tissues  due  to  tearing 
of  the  heart  muscle  or  the  walls  of  the  bloodvessels  [hemorrhages  by 
rupture  (per  rhexis)  resulting  from  traumatisms,  greatly  increased  blood 
pressure  or  nutritive  disturbances  of  the  walls  of  the  bloodvessels], 
and  hemorrhages  without  separation  of  the  continuity  of  the  blood- 
vessel, in  which  blood  corpuscles  and  serum  escape  by  diapedesix, 
through  dilated  pores  of  the  walls  of  the  vessels.  In  the  former,  larger 
hemorrhages  and  blood  effusions  are  produced  (extravasations,  suggilla- 
tions,  hemorrhagic  areas,  infarcts,  hematomas) ;  in  the  latter,  punctiform 
and  circumscribed  hemorrhages  (petechia  and  ecchymosis). 

The  consistency  of  the  hemorrhages  is  not  affected  by  the  animal 
being  bled  to  death. 

Driick  determines  the  time  of  the  occurrence  of  hemorrhages,  as  follows: 
First  the  red  blood  corpuscles  swell  and  begin  to  clear.  As  a  result  of  clear- 
ing they  become  pale  after  two  days  and  finally  almost  completely  transparent, 
while  as  a  result  of  the  swelling  the  biconcave  blood  plates  gradually  adopt 
a  round  form.  From  the  fifth  day,  shrinkage  takes  place  with  formation  of 
very  fine  crenations  on  the  periphery  of  the  blood  corpuscles.  The  increased 
shrinkage  changes  the  blood  corpuscles  up  to  the  sixth  to  eighth  day  into  either 
irregular  polygonal  or  star-shaped  formations,  or  into  key  or  cup-shaped  bodies. 
The  hemoglobin  penetrates  the  surrounding  tissues  uniformly  until  the  sixth 
day,  and  produces  a  brownish  tint.  At  the  seventh  day,  hemosiderin,  which 
contains  iron  (Plate  I,  Fig.  2),  develops  and  soon  diffuses  through  the  entire 
tissue.  However,  from  the  twelfth  day  it  is  exclusively  found  in  the  contracted 
cells.  From  the  twelfth  day  the  pigment,  which  is  at  first  in  solution  in  the  white 
blood  corpuscles,  becomes  granular;  and  from  the  eighteenth  to  the  twenty- 
fifth  day,  it  gradually  breaks  up  into  finer  and  finer  granules.  At  the  same  time 
the  white  corpuscles  containing  granulesalso  break  up,  so  that  from  the  eighteenth 
day  the  first  free  pigment  granules  may  be  noticed  in  the  tissues.  In  the  latter, 
about  the  sixtieth  day,  there  is  a  very  fine  granular  pigment  exclusively  present, 
which  is  free  of  iron.  Besides,  under  certain  but  entirely  unknown  conditions, 
coloring  matter  crystals  may  form  (hematoidin,  a  derivative  of  hemoglobin,  con- 
taining iron,  Plate  I,  Fig.  1). 

For  judgment,  see  under  page  202. 


200  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

Transudates. — The  increased  escape  of  fluid  constituents  of  the 
blood  through  the  uninjured  walls  of  the  vessels,  which  results  inside 
of  the  tissue  in  edema  (anasarca,  hyposarca)  and  in  the  body  cavities 
in  effusions,  is  either  the  result  of  changes  of  the  blood  (hydremia) 
or  of  disturbances  of  circulation,  the  recognition  of  which  is  very 
difficult,  although  the  causes  are  quite  significant.  While  edemas 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  changed  by  slaughter,  observation  of  suspected 
transudation  in  the  large  body  cavities  requires  the  personal  presence 
of  the  inspector  at  the  opening  of  the  carcass. 

For  judgment,  see  below. 

Thrombosis  and  Embolism. — Obstructions  of  bloodvessels,  as  a  rule, 
are  recognized  in  meat  inspection  only  when  they  affect  large  blood- 
vessels, or  when  thrombosis  is  present  in  organs  in  which  a  hemor- 
rhagic  infarct  develops.  The  infarct  usually  possesses  a  wedge-shaped 
cross-section,  and  is  chiefly  conspicuous  by  its  dark  red  color,  which 
gradually  turns  to  a  dim  gray  and  dull  yellow.  Hemorrhagic  infarcts 
are  principally  found  in  organs  with  terminal  arteries  (spleen,  kidneys, 
brain,  retina),  but  also  in  the  lungs.  If  the  region  of  the  obstructing 
bloodvessels  does  not  anastomose  with  other  vessels  from  which  it 
may  receive  blood,  that  region  remains  free  of  blood  and  dies  off. 
It  will  develop  an  anemic,  pale  infarct,  which  may  be  principally 
observed  in  the  heart,  spleen,  and  kidneys.  Later,  it  results  in  con- 
nective-tissue degeneration  and  cicatrization  of  the  region  cut  off 
from  the  arterial  blood  supply. 

Judgment. — In  the  judgment  of  meat  included  under  the  described 
local  circulatory  disturbances,  the  extent  and  cause  of  conditions  must 
be  considered;  also  whether  these  changes  are  purely  local  and  appear 
independently,  or  whether  they  are  the  accompanying  manifestations 
of  a  general  affection.  In  purely  local  changes,  as  a  rule,  only  the 
diseased  part  of  the  body,  or  the  entire  affected  organ  is  condemned  as 
unfit  for  human  food  on  account  of  its  altered  consistence. 

When  circulatory  disturbances  are  manifested  in  numerous  parts 
of  the  body  it  is  usually  indicative  of  a  general  affection  and  should 
be  judged  accordingly,  but  when  the  circulatory  disturbances  are 
not  symptomatic  of  a  generally  diseased  condition,  and  yet  appear 
extensively  throughout  the  body,  their  significance  should  be  con- 
sidered under  Organic  Diseases  (page  207). 

Inflammations. — For  the  purposes  of  meat  inspection  it  appears 
most  appropriate  to  consider  various  inflammations  in  accordance 
with  the  character  of  their  exudates.  Accordingly  the  following  forms 
are  distinguished : 

1.  Serous  and  catarrhal  inflammation. 

2.  Fibrinous  inflammation. 

3.  Suppurative  and  ulcerative  inflammation. 

4.  Hemorrhagic  inflammation. 

5.  Croupous  inflammation. 

6.  Diphtheritic  inflammation. 

7.  Gangrenous  inflammation. 

8.  Productive  inflammation. 


rAT/IOLOUICAL   CHANGES  IN    MKAT   I XS/'KCTION  201 

There  are  also  variously  related  and  mixed  forms  (serofibrinous  inflamma- 
tions, croupous-diphtheritic  inflammation,  etc.).  The  parenchymatous  and 
interstitial  inflammations  of  glandular  organs,  from  a  practical  standpoint  are 
better  kept  apart. 

In  regard  to  the  lesions  found  in  various  forms  of  inflammations,  nothing  need 
be  said  here,  as  their  manifestations  should  be  familiar  to  everyone  who  has 
studied  pathology.  For  the  same  reason  the  cause  of  inflammations  will  not  be 
treated  here. 

Judgment. — In  judging  the  meat  of  affected  carcasses  the  purely 
local  forms  of  inflammation  must  be  separated  from  those  which  appear 
as  accompanying  symptoms  of  general  disease.  The  purely  local 
forms  are  frequently  the  results  of  traumatic  lesions  and  are  more 
or  less  confined  to  certain  areas;  accordingly  only  the  inflamed  parts, 
or  at  most  the  affected*  organ,  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human 
food.  In  serous  and  catarrhal  inflammations  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes this  is  frequently  unnecessary,  as  the  diseased  organs  are  either 
not  used  in  any  form  for  human  food,  or  in  further  manipulations 
(intestines,  air  passages,  urinary  and  sexual  passages)  the  diseased 
mucous  membranes  are  removed.  That  local  inflammations  may  be 
the  starting  point  of  infectious  processes  is  known,  and  therefore,  when 
suspicious  of  such  cases,  it  is  advisable  to  be  careful  in  the  disposal 
of  the  meat. 

Those  general  affections  which  manifest  accompanying  symptoms 
of  inflammation  are  usually  of  an  infectious  nature  (principally  the 
more  severe  hemorrhagic,  croupous-diphtheritic  and  parenchymatous 
inflammations) .  The  judgment  of  such  carcasses  depends  on  the  original 
disease. 

Retrogressive  Nutritive  Disturbances  and  Infiltration  of  the  Tissues. 
— Atrophy. — In  meat  inspection  the  condition  known  as  atrophy  is  of  no 
special  importance,  and  comes  only  into  consideration  when  fat,  mus- 
cular tissues,  and  certain  glands,  especially  the  liver,  are  affected.  While 
the  atrophy  of  the  glandular  organs  is  easily  recognized  by  the  decrease 
in  size  and  the  firmer  consistence,  nevertheless,  the  atrophy  of  the 
muscles  and  of  the  fat  tissues  is,  as  a  rule,  only  noticed  in  an  advanced 
state.  As  a  result  of  atrophy  of  parenchymal  cells,  the  connective- 
tissue  elements  stand  out  more  prominently  in  the  atrophied  organ; 
and  this  condition  is  sometimes  wrongly  considered  as  an  increase 
of  connective  tissue  (induration). 

Judgment. — See  page  205. 

Cloudy  Swelling. — Cloudy  swelling  (parenchymatous  degeneration, 
granular  infiltration)  is  of  very  great  diagnostic  importance  in  meat 
inspection.  It  occurs  in  large  glandular  organs  and  in  muscles,  and 
is  characterized  by  slight  enlargement  of  the  organ,  with  a  cloudy, 
dull,  lusterless  appearance,  especially  of  the  cut  surface,  together 
with  the  projection  and  diffused  appearance  of  the  latter.  The  normal 
color  is  changed  into  grayish  color  tints,  the  lightness  of  which  corre- 
sponds with  the  severity  of  the  changes.  The  consistence  of  the  organ 
is  friable,  which  as  a  result  of  a  diminution  in  blood  and  moisture 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

may  increase  to  a  brittleness.    In  a  pronounced  case  the  organs  appear 
as  if  they  were  boiled.     Cloudy  swelling  is  to  be  considered  as  a  dis- 
organization of  the  protoplasm,  which  ensues  under 
FlG- 75  the   absorption  of   fluids,  and    leads  to  a  partial 

fm^_  separation  of  the  solid  and  fluid  parts  (Ziegler). 

Microscopic  examination   reveals  an  accumula- 
tion  of    fine,  slightly    refractile    granules    in    the 
protoplasma  of  the  swollen   cells,  the  connection 
cioudy  swelling  of  liver     of  which  appears  somewhat  loosened.     The  albu- 
ceiis  as  a  result  of  septi-     menous  granules,  which  are  insoluble  in  alkalies 
rTT -x  350  diameters.         d  ether  b  t  are  soiuble  in  acetic  acid,  give  the 

(After  Ziegler.)  >    & 

cells  a  cloudy  appearance,  as  it  they  had  been 
covered  with  dust  (Fig.  75).  The  nucleus  may  also  be  swollen  and 
its  structure  degenerated. 

Cloudy  swelling  is  frequently  the  precursor  of  fatty  degeneration 
(see  below  on  this  page). 

Judgment. — See  page  205. 

Fatty  Infiltration. — Fatty  infiltration,  which  frequently  occurs  in 
various  organs  of  fattened-food  animals,  does  not  represent  an  abnormal 
condition  in  meat  inspection,  and  is  only  mentioned  in  contradistinction 
to  the  fatty  degeneration  described  below. 

By  physiological  infiltration  is  understood  a  deposit  of  fat  globules 
in  the  cells,  the  normal  structure  of  which  remains  otherwise  intact. 
The  fat  enters  the  cells,  according  to  Rievel,  in  dissolved  form,  is  split 
up,  and  is  then  again  synthetically  built  up  within  the  cells  (granular 
fat  synthesis  of  Arnold).  This  condition  appears  principally  in  the 
tissues  which  normally  serve  for  storing  fat  (connective  tissue). 

It  also  occurs  to  a  great  extent  in  primitive  muscular  fibers,  in  various 
epithelial  cells,  and  especially  in  liver  cells.  To  this  form  of  infiltra- 
tion belongs  the  so-called  fatty  liver  of  highly  fattened  animals  as  well 
as  the  liver  in  cases  of  advanced  pregnancy,  in  sucking  animals,  and  in 
diseased  conditions  where  there  is  an  insufficient  oxidation  of  blood. 

Fatty  liver  is  characterized  by  its  lighter  yellowish-brown  color, 
slight  swelling,  rounded  edges,  cloudiness,  fatty  luster  of  the  cut 
surface,  but  by  no  structural  abnormalities,  and  the  lobules  are  not 
obliterated.  The  consistence  is  soft.  Microscopically,  a  rich  accumu- 
lation of  fat  is  found  in  the  interlobular  tissue,  and  the  swollen  fat 
globules  have  a  tendency  to  run  together,  to  form  large  droplets  in  the 
cell  protoplasm  (Fig.  76,  a,  6). 

Judgment. — See  page  205. 

Fatty  Degeneration. — Fatty  degeneration,  which,  according  to  Rievel, 
would  be  more  correctly  designated  as  pathological  or  degenerative 
fatty  infiltration,  represents  occasionally  an  advanced  development 
of  cloudy  swelling;  but  it  may  also  occur  without  this  preliminary 
process.  It  affects  both  epithelial  cells  (liver  and  kidney),  connective- 
tissue  substances  (heart  and  skeleton  muscles,  connective-tissue  fibers), 
and  consists  in  an  accumulation  of  fat  in  the  cells,  the  structure  of 
which  is  more  or  less  injured.  Fat,  however,  does  not  originate  from 


r.\T/f()LO(H(1AL   CI/AXUEti  IN   MEAT  INM'ECTIOX 


20:5 


breaking  up  of  the  cell  albumen,  as  it"  was  formerly  supposed,  but  it 
is  conveyed  as  such  to  the  cells.  The  entire  procedure  might  be  traced 
to  respiratory  causes. 

Fatty  degenerated  organs  are  characterized  by  a  yellowish  color, 
which  may  be  uniform  or  spotted,  with  slight  fatty  luster  of  the  cut 
surface,  obliterated  structural  relations,  and  flabby,  doughy  consistence. 
A  swelling  of  organs  in  the  majority  of  cases  does  not  take  place.  Micro- 


FIG.  76 


FIG.  77 


Liver  cells  containing  fat:  a  and  6,  fatty  infil- 
tration;  c,  d,  e,  f,  fatty  degeneration.  X  400 
diameters.  (After  Ziegler.) 


Fatty   degeneration  of  the  heart  muscle.    X  350 
diameters.     (After  Ziegler.) 


scopically,  a  disintegration  of  cell  connections  is  found,  and  sometimes 
a  crumbling  and  breaking  down  of  the  cell  into  a  fatty  detritus,  which 
consists  of  granules  and  fat  globules  (Figs.  76  and  77).  The  latter 
remain  unchanged  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid;  while  they  are  dissolved 
by  ether  and  chloroform. 
Judgment.  —  See  page  205. 

Various  Degenerations.  —  Mucoid  degeneration  (mucin  metamorphosis)  is 
rarely  observed  in  food  animals.  It  affects  fat  tissues,  which  are  transformed 
into  a  yellow  transparent  jelly-like  mass  (Ostertag). 

Hyaline  or  glassy  degeneration  of  the  muscles  also  occurs  infrequently,  and 
is  always  associated  with  severe  general  affections.  It  was  observed  by  Frattner 
to  affect  the  heart  muscles  in  the  malignant  form  of  foot  and  mouth  disease. 

Amyloid  degenerations  have  been  observed  in  various  organs,  especially 
in  fowls. 

Judgment.  —  See  page  205. 

Necrosis,  Caseation,  Gangrene.  —  The  easily  recognized  necrosis,  or 
necrobiosis  of  the  organs  or  tissues,  occurs  principally  as  a  local  affection, 
and  would  accordingly  be  of  little  importance  in  meat  inspection  if 
the  necrotic  parts  did  not  readily  become  centres  for  the  colonization 
and  multiplication  of  saprophytic  and  pathogenic  microorganisms. 
In  such  cases  an  inflammation  always  develops  in  the  tissues  surround- 
ing the  necrotic  parts,  and  not  infrequently  a  uniformly  diseased  con- 
dition follows  in  the  affected  animal. 

Caseation  is  designated  as  necrobiotic  coagulation  necrosis,  in  which 
the  broken-down  tissue  has  a  caseous  appearance.  Tuberculous  change 
of  the  tissues  is  the  typical  form.  In  cellular  tissue,  caseation  may 
be  frequently  observed  between  the  cells  as  a  "fibrinoid  mass,"  or 
even  as  typical  thready  fibrin  (Fig.  78). 


204  Df  8  E  AS  NX  OF  FO()l)-l>RODUCING  ANIMALS 

Gangrene,  which  results  from  necrosis  as  a  result  of  breaking  down 
of  diseased  tissues  through  the  influence  of  saprophytes,  is  characterized 
by  a  softening  of  those  tissues  with  the  formation  of  gases  having  an 
offensive  odor.  Therefore,  everything  said  about  necrosis,  and  espe- 
cially concerning  the  danger  of  a  resulting  uniform  affection,  also 
applies  to  gangrene;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  development  of  putrid 
intoxications  or  spetic  infections  is  quite  frequent  in  connection  with 
gangrene  (see  Chapter  VIII,  page  264). 

Judgment. — See  page  205. 


r 


Tissue  from  a  partially  caseated  tuberculous  focus  with  bacilli  (alk.  fuchsin-aniline  blue) :  a,  granu- 
lar; a',  cheesy  masses;  6,  fibrous  cellular  tissue;  c,  partly  necrotic  giant  cell  with  bacilli;  d,  bacilli  in 
the  cellular  tissue;  e,  bacilli  in  necrotic  tissue;  /,  bacilli  enclosed  in  cells.  X  200  diameters.  (After 
Ziegler.) 

Suppuration.- — While  suppuration  is  a  product  of  inflammation  and 
as  such  has  been  already  mentioned,  it  deserves  special  attention  as 
a  frequently  occurring  disintegration  of  tissues  in  food  animals. 

Although  suppuration  may  be  produced  by  chemical  substances 
(mercury,  turpentine,  petroleum,  creolin,  digitoxin,  bacterial  pro- 
teins), still,  from  a  practical  standpoint,  all  cases  of  suppuration  must 
be  considered  of  infectious  origin,  occasioned  by  various  pus-forming 
organisms  (Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus,  albus,  and  citreus;  Strep- 
tococcus pyogenes;  Streptococcus  equi ;  Bacillus  pyogenes  suis;  Bacillus 
pyogenes  fcetidus;  Bacillus  liquefaciens  bovis;  Bacillus  pyelonephriditis 
and  others) .  Various  other  microorganisms  (for  instance,  Actinomyces 
bovis,  Botryococcus  ascoformans)  may  also  act  as  pus-producing  agents. 

In  regard  to  the  origin  of  suppurations,  Kreutzer  expresses  the  following 
opinion:  "  Pus-forming  bacteria  irritate  the  tissues  by  their  large  masses,  and 
through  proteins  contained  in  their  bodies  attract  leukocytes  (chemotactic 
action)  and  produce  by  this  cell-infiltration  a  true  inflammation.  Toxins  and 
ferments  produced  by  pus-forming  bacteria  cause  a  breaking  down  of  leuko- 
cytes, through  a  chemical  action,  which  makes  their  return  migration  impos- 
sible— disturb  and  prevent  fibrin-formation,  and  peptonize  all  albumen  of  the 
tissues."  In  the  horse,  the  most  frequent  pus-producing  organism,  according 
to  Kreutzer,  is  Staphylococcus  pyogenes  aureus  and  albus;  and  in  cattle,  Strep- 
tococcus pyogenes  predominates;  but  in  most  instances  various  pus-forming 
organisms  are  present  at  the  same  time.  In  the  pus  of  sheep,  Staphylococcus 
pyogenes  is  chiefly  present,  while  in  hogs,  dogs,  and  cats  it  is  Staphylococcus 
pyogenes  aureus. 


1'ATllOLOGICAL  CHANGES  IN  MEAT  INSPECTION  205 

Suppuration  remains  localized,  as  a  rule,  in  the  form  of  suppurative 
catarrh  (pyorrhea),  ulceration,  suppurative  exudate  (empyema),  or 
suppuration  within  the  tissues  (abscess);  or  it  may  be  generalized 
throughout  the  circulation  and  develop  into  pyemia  (see  Chapter 
VIII,  page  301).  The  local  abscesses  may  become  encapsulated  and 
heal  by  drying  up  and  calcification. 

Judgment — See  below. 

Calcification. — Deposits  of  lime  salts  are  found  in  food  animals, 
either  as  diffused  calcification  in  various  tissues  (cartilage,  fat  tissues) 
or  as  circumscribed  areas  of  calcification,  which  partly  appear  as  end 
products  of  retrogressive  tissue  metamorphosis  (calcified  deposits 
within  the  muscles,  calcified  abscesses),  and  also  deposits  enclosing 
dead  parasites.  Circumscribed  calcifications  are  also  designated  by 
the  unsuitable  name  of  concrements  (page  209) . 

Concrements  proper,  which  occur  as  so-called  intestinal,  urinary,  biliary,  and 
renal  calculi,  and  which  are  occasionally  found  in  animals,  are  of  no  importance 
in  meat  inspection. 

Judgment. — See  below. 

Pathological  Pigment  Formation. — Abnormal  pigmentation  occurs 
principally  in  cattle  and  calves,  but  also  in  sheep  and  hogs  (Lemke, 
Feuereissen),  as  melanosis  maculosa,  or  less  frequently,  as  melanosis 
diffusa,  which  may  be  confined  to  single  organs  (lungs,  pleura,  liver, 
meninges,  various  parts  of  the  subcutis,  muscular  aponeurosis),  or 
may  be  generalized.  In  the  latter  form  all  connective  tissues  may  be 
intermixed  with  black-colored  spots.  The  melanosarcomata  belong  to 
the  multiple  tumor  formations. 

The  condition  described  by  Virchow  as  ochronosis — a  brown  to  blackish 
coloration  of  the  cartilage,  tendons,  and  capsules  of  the  joints — is  brought 
on  by  imbibition  of  the  tissue  with  coloring  similar  to  that  of  melanin.  It 
occurs  in  cattle,  calves,  and  hogs.  (Mosselmann,  Brouvier,  Lachmann,  Helrout, 
Bail  and  others.) 

The  condition  described  by  Goltz  as  xanthosis,  which  is  of  comparatively 
rare  occurrence,  consists  of  a  liver-brown  discoloration  of  the  muscles;  according 
to  Roth  and  Resow,  a  designation  "  brown  atrophy"  would  apply  more  correctly 
to  this  condition.  It  is  always  associated  with  changes  of  the  suprarenal 
capsules. 

The  hematogenous  pigment  formations  (changing  of  the  blood-coloring  matter 
in  extravasations,  etc.,  page  199)  and  the  symptomatic  discoloration  of  tissues 
(icterus)  cannot  be  considered  here. 

Judgment. — In  judging  cases  of  atrophic  degeneration  and  infiltra- 
tion of  tissues  (pages  201  to  205),  it  should  be  decided  in  the  first  place, 
whether  the  processes  are  purely  localized  or  whether  they  represent 
symptoms  of  general  affections. 

As  localized  cases  are  considered,  all  those  conditions  of  atrophy, 
fatty  infiltration,  necrosis,  suppuration,  calcification,  and  pigment 
formation  in  which  the  affection  is  slight  and  the  localized  diseased 
parts  are  removable.  The  affected  organ  itself  is  considered  as  un- 
wholesome, and  must  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food. 


206  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

Fatty  infiltration,  however,  gives  no  cause  for  condemnation  unless 
at  the  same  time  conspicuous  changes  in  the  consistence  (pulpy  soften- 
ing) of  such  organs  confer  upon  them  the  character  of  a  spoiled  tissue. 

In  necrosis  and  gangrene  the  meat  should  be  carefully  examined 
for  evidence  of  septicemia;  and  in  fresh  suppurations  a  similar  exami- 
nation regarding  pyemic  manifestations  should  be  made. 

General  muscular  atrophy  should  be  judged  according  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  emaciation  (page  193). 

Pigment  formation  may  appear  widespread  throughout  the  entire 
body  (melanosis)  and  render  the  animal  unfit  for  human  food.  In 
local  pigmentations,  judgment  should  be  made  in  accordance  with 
the  regulations. 

The  occurrence  of  cloudy  swelling,  fatty,  mucoid,  hyaline,  and 
amyloid  degenerations  points  usually  to  severe  generalized  affections, 
and  judging  should  be  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of  the  disease. 

Circumscribed  calcifications— so-called  lime  concrements — must  be 
judged  according  to  their  etiology,  especially  if  they  appear  in  multiples, 
and  are  more  or  less  extensive  (see  Muscle  Concrements,  page  209). 

[The  judgment  of  the  conditions  described  above  is  carried  out  by 
the  United  States  meat-inspection  force  on  similar  lines  to  those  pro- 
vided by  the  German  regulations.] 

Hypertrophy,  Hyperplasia,  Metaplasia.  —  The  hypertrophy  of  an  organ 
through  enlargement  of  the  elementary  constituents  (hypertrophy),  or  through 
increase  of  these  constituents  (hyperplasia),  has  no  importance  in  meat  inspec- 
tion, as  in  this  condition  the  macroscopic  composition  does  not  appear  changed. 

The  condition  designated  as  metaplasia  represents  transformation  of  already 
developed  tissues  into  other  tissues  without  intervention  of  organisms  or  con- 
nective tissue.  It  occurs  in  food  animals  as  bone  formation  in  scars  (castration 
scars),  belly  fat  and  mesentery  of  hogs,  etc.,  and  is  of  no  importance  to  meat 
inspection. 

Judgment. — Hypertrophic  and  hyperplastic  organs  give  no  cause  for  con- 
demnation. Metaplastic  tissues,  however,  should  be  condemned,  inasmuch  as 
they  represent  foreign  bodies  in  the  affected  tissues.  [The  same  disposal  is 
observed  by  the  United  States  meat-inspection  force.] 

Tumors. — Non-malignant  tumors  appear  principally  localized,  and 
confined  as  solitary  or  isolated  new  formations  on  one  and  the  same 
part  of  the  body. 

In  malignant  tumors  (sarcoma  and  carcinoma)  an  affection  of  the 
corresponding  lymph  glands  is  invariably  associated,  and  sometimes 
there  is  extensive  metastasis,  which  may  result  in  generalized  sarcoma- 
tosis  and  carcinomatosis,  without  the  accompaniment  of  cachectic 
conditions  in  the  lower  animals. 

Judgment. — Non-malignant  tumors  are  usually  easily  removed,  and 
after  their  removal  they  have  no  influence  on  the  wholesomeness  of  the 
part  of  the  body  from  which  they  were  excised. 

In  the  case  of  malignant  tumors,  transmissibility  of  sarcomas  and 
carcinomas  to  man  by  the  ingestion  of  meat  is  probably  to  be  excluded; 
at  any  rate  it  is  not  yet  proved.  In  most  cases  the  affected  organ, 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS  OF   TISSUES  AND  ORGANS     207 

together  with  its  lymph  glands,  is  involved  by  malignant  tumors  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  becomes  unfit  for  human  food,  and  should  there- 
fore be  condemned. 

Where  tumors  are  numerous,  a  decision  is  made  from  the  extent 
of  the  lesions  and  the  nutritive  state  of  the  carcass  as  to  whether  it 
should  be  passed  for  food,  declared  of  an  inferior  quality,  or  be  con- 
demned. The  latter  action  should  always  be  taken  if  metastasis  occurs 
on  numerous  parts  of  the  skeleton,  body,  or  in  the  lymph  glands;  or  if 
secondary  changes  (watery  condition,  flabbiness,  etc.)  are  observed  in 
the  muscles. 

For  the  so-called  granulomata  or  infectious  growths  (new  formations  in 
tuberculosis,  actinomycosis,  botryomycosis,  and  glanders),  see  the  chapter  on 
Infectious  Diseases,  page  264. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  23,  any 
organ  or  part  of  carcass  which  is  affected  by  malignant  or  benign  tumors 
shall  be  condemned.  In  case  the  carcinoma  or  sarcoma  involves  any 
internal  organ  to  a  marked  extent,  or  affects  the  muscles,  skeleton, 
or  body  lymph  glands,  even  primarily,  the  carcass  shall  be  condemned. 
In  the  presence  of  metastasis  to  any  other  organ  or  part  of  a  carcass, 
or  if  metastasis  has  not  occurred  but  there  are  present  secondary  changes 
in  the  muscles  (serous  infiltration,  flabbiness,  etc.),  the  carcass  should 
be  condemned.] 

Malformations. — Various  malformations  which  occur  in  food  animals 
are  only  of  importance  in  meat  inspection  should  they  conspicuously 
change  the  appearance  or  structure  of  that  respective  part  of  the 
body.  When  marked  structural  changes  are  present,  or  if  there  be 
a  repulsive  appearance  of  the  malformed  part,  it  should  be  declared 
as  unfit  for  human  food;  in  milder  cases  only  partial  condemnation 
mav  be  necessarv. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS   OF  TISSUES  AND  ORGANS 

In  the  following  section  only  those  pathological  anatomical  changes 
of  tissues  and  organs  will  be  discussed  which  possess  a  certain  impor- 
tance in  meat  inspection,  and  which  have  not  been  sufficiently  described 
in  the  previous  chapters. 

In  judging  these  tissues  and  organic  diseases  in  meat  inspection, 
it  should  be  understood  that  they  usually  cause  purely  localized  changes, 
which  require  only  removal  of  the  diseased  tissues  or  the  respective 
organs,  for  only  exceptionally  do  they  affect  the  full  value  of  the  entire 
carcass.  Therefore,  the  judging  of  the  diseases  described  below,  which 
should  be  chiefly  carried  out  according  to  the  regulations,  will  not  be 
further  mentioned  under  the  Various  processes,  and  will  be  specified 
only  in  such  places  where  they  have  to  be  considered  from  an  additional 
point  of  view. 


208  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

Skeletal  Muscles. — 1.  Hemorrhages  may  appear  in  muscles  as 
local  and  multiple  hemorrhages.  The  first  are  due  to  local  traumatic 
influences  which  result  in  a  tearing  of  the  muscular  fibers  and  their 
bloodvessels.  Multiple  hemorrhages  are  sometimes  due  to  toxic  or 
infectious  causes;  more  frequently,  however,  they  are  of  mechanical 
origin. 

Multiple  hemorrhages  in  muscles  of  fattened  hogs  are  classified 
among  the  hemorrhages  of  mechanical  origin  (fragmentatio  hsemor- 
rhagica  carnis,  Kitt).  They  result  from  tearing  of  the  muscle  fibers 
and  capillaries  in  consequence  of  exertions,  to  which  the  fatty  infiltrated 
muscular  fibers  are  not  equal  on  account  of  not  being  used  to  work. 
They  are  found  as  irregular,  isolated  spots,  ranging  in  size  from  a 
pin's  head  to  twice  the  size  of  a  pea  in  at  least  8  per  cent,  of  all  the 
slaughtered  hogs.  They  are  situated  principally  in  the  muscles  of 
the  diaphragm;  next  in  frequency  they  occur  in  the  abdominal,  psoas, 
and  pelvic  muscles.  In  rare  cases  they  may  also  be  found  in  all  the 
skeleton  muscles.  Occasionally  multiple  hemorrhages  may  also  occur 
in  other  species  of  food  animals;  for  instance,  they  were  described  in 
cattle  by  Clausen. 

Multiple  hemorrhages  of  toxic  and  infectious  origin  accompany 
phosphorus  poisoning,  tetanus,  and  anthrax,  as  well  as  septic  and 
pyemic  diseases.  In  addition,  ecchymoses  on  the  serous  membranes 
and  other  characteristic  lesions  of  the  respective  general  diseases  are 
always  present.  The  judgment  of  meat  showing  these  hemorrhages 
should,  therefore,  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  condition  which  produced 
them. 

2.  Inflammatory  processes  of  the  muscles  are  principally  of  trau- 
matic origin,  and  are  confined  locally.     Scattered  and  non-traurnatic 
(polymyositis)   inflammatory  changes  appear  as  symptoms  of  severe 
general  affections,  and  result  frequently  in  muscle  degenerations. 

Whether  the  so-called  " chicken-meat  appearance,"  which  has  been  occasion- 
ally observed  in  calves  and  young  cattle,  represents  always  an  interstitial  myositis 
(Stoss,  Bayersdorf  er) ,  or  whether  the  condition  is  due  to  deficiency  of  muscle 
coloring  matter,  is  not  yet  definitely  established.  The  latter  is  probably  also  the 
case  in  iridescence  of  the  muscles,  which  is  occasionally  observed  on  the  longis- 
simus  dorsi  muscle  of  hogs.  More  frequently,  iridescence  occurs  in  boiled, 
pickled;  or  smoked  meat  (see  Chapter  X). 

3.  Degenerations,  cloudy  swelling,  or  granular  degeneration   of  the 
muscle  fibers  occur  in  severe  intoxications  and  in  febrile  infectious 
diseases.    The  macroscopic  appearance  of  the  degenerated  muscle  shows 
a  flabby,  mellow,  pale,  gray,  and  cloudy  condition;  microscopically,  the 
muscle  fibers  show  fine  granular,  dust-like,  albumenous  precipitation, 
which  disappears  upon  addition  of  acetic  acid  (see  page  202). 

In  fatty  degeneration  the  muscles  appear  still  softer,  yellowish,  or 
mottled,  with  yellow  stripes.  Microscopically,  strong  refractile  bodies 
(fat  globules)  are  found,  which,  under  certain  conditions,  may  cover 
the  cross-striations,  and  do  not  disappear  upon  addition  of  acetic  acid 
(Fig.  77). 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS  OF  TISSUES  AND  ORGANS     209 


For  fatty  infiltration,  which  should  not  be  confused  with  fatty 
degeneration,  see  page  202. 

Hyaline  or  glassy  degeneration  is  observed  in  hemaglobinemia, 
morbus  maculosus,  acute  muscular  rheumatism,  and  in  parturient 
paresis  (Zschokke). 

Microscopically,  hyaline  degeneration  is  only  recognizable  when 
it  affects  numerous  muscle  fibers.  In  such  cases,  the  muscles  appear 
cloudy,  dull,  pale,  like  the  meat  of  fish.  Microscopically,  the  degener- 
ated and  coagulated  contractile  substances  appear  homogeneous,  glassy, 
and  disintegrated  into  flakes. 


FIG.  79 


FJO.  80 


Amyloid  degeneration:  a,  transversely  striated 
normal  fibers;  6,  degenerated  fibers;  c,  enlarged 
muscle  nuclei;  d,  connective  tissue  infiltrated 
with  cells.  X  250  diameters.  (After  Ziegler.) 


Lime  concretions  in  the  muscles  of  the  hog. 
X    40  diameters 


The  nature  of  hyaline  degeneration  of  muscles  observed  in  isolated 
cases  in  young  cattle  and  calves,  and  producing  a  white  or  colored 
appearance,  is  not  yet  clear. 

The  peculiar  changes  which  were  recently  described  as  specific  muscle 
degenerations  (Ostertag),  and  which  were  formerly  designated  as  muscle 
actinomycosis  (Duncker),  also  appear  to  be  hyaline  degeneration 
(David).  This  specific  degeneration  develops  also  without  a  general 
diseased  condition  (Fig.  81). 

4.  Lime  concrements  are  often  found  in  the  muscles  of  hogs,  and 
may  occur  in  large  numbers.  They  may  be  recognized  frequently 
by  the  naked  eye  as  small,  elongated,  or  round,  gray  or  grayish-white 
points  and  dots.  They  are  usually  met  with  in  muscles  of  the  dia- 
phragm and  abdomen.  These  concrements  are  indicative  of  either 
the  end  products  of  retrogressive  metamorphosis  of  the  tissues  or 
calcification  of  dead  parasites.  The  latter  is  occasionally  confirmed 
14 


210  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

by  microscopic  examination,  which,  however,  does  not  disclose  the 
nature  of  the  concrements  in  numerous  cases.  Glage  demonstrated 
cysticercus  tenuicollis  as  the  cause  of  lime  concrements  occurring  in 
sheep. 

FIG.  81 


Specific  degeneration  of  the  muscle  of  hog.     X  35  diameters.     (After  Duncker.) 

Tumors  occurring  in  the  muscles,  embolic  affections,  metaplasia,  and  para- 
sites are  discussed  elsewhere. 

Blastomycosis  of  the  muscles  of  cattle,  described  by  Ostertag,  is  very  rare. 
All  the  muscles  are  studded  with  fibrinous  nodules  ranging  in  sizes  from  a 
lentil  to  that  of  a  walnut;  the  centres  contain  punctiform,  yellowish,  cloudy 
colonies. 

Judgment. — (See  page  207.)  Occasionally,  especially  in  the  presence 
of  lime  concrement,  the  meat  must  be  considered  of  inferior  quality. 

Connective  Tissue. — 1.  Hemorrhages. — What  has  been  said  relative 
to  hemorrhages  in  the  muscles  applies  equally  to  the  etiology  and 
anatomy  of  hemorrhages  in  connective  tissue.  See  also  page  199, 
concerning  hemorrhages  in  general. 

2.  Imbibition   with   blood-coloring   matter   only   occurs   in   general 
affections    (intoxications   and    infectious    diseases)    where    the   blood 
becomes  wax  colored,  or  where  through  action  of  water  after  death 
the  blood  contained  in  the  meat  transmits  coloring  matter  to  the 
fluids  of  the  tissues,  as,  for  instance,  in  meat  exposed  to  the  rain.     As 
meat  from  well-bled  animals  should  contain  only  traces  of  blood,  only 
an  insignificant  local  bloody  imbibition  can  develop  through  the  influence 
of  water.     Larger  bloody  imbibitions  are  always  suspicious. 

3.  Inflammatory  and  breaking-down  processes  in  connective  tissue 
(hyperemia,    edema,    phlegmon,    suppurations,    etc.)    appear    under 
known  pathological  anatomical  manifestations.     Large  and  extensive 
edemas  may  be  the  symptoms  of  severe  general  affections  (hydremia, 
cachexia).     In  suppuration  and  putrefaction  of  the  connective  tissues, 
pyemia  and  septicemia  should  be  remembered. 

4.  Emphysema. — The  presence   of  air  in  the   subcutaneous   tissue 
and  the  intermuscular  connective  tissue  may  be  artificially  produced  by 
inflating  the  carcasses  of  calves  and  sheep  (page  43)  through  forcing 
air  into  the  subcutis. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS  OF  TISSUES  AND  ORGANS     211 

[In  the  United  States  this  practice  is  confined  to  Louisiana  and 
eastern  Texas  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  French  people.] 

Furthermore,  emphysema  may  be  due  to  injuries  of  the  air  passages 
and  lungs,  as  well  as  to  escape  of  gas  from  the  intestines,  in  cases  where 
intestinal  adhesions  to  the  abdominal  wall  have  caused  perforation. 
In  such  cases  the  collection  of  gas  in  the  connective  tissue  becomes 
conspicuous  by  its  disagreeable  odor.  The  latter  is  also  noticeable 
when  emphysema  is  the  result  of  gangrenous  decompositions,  black- 
leg, septicemia,  etc.  Injuries  to  the  skin,  which  allow  the  subcuta- 
neous tissues  to  come  in  contact  with  the  external  air,  also  may  result 
in  emphysema  at  places  where  the  skin  is  easily  displaced  (extremities). 

The  other  pathological  changes  in  connective  tissue,  such  as  parasitic  affec- 
tions, tumors,  and  embolic  processes,  are  either  of  no  importance  in  meat 
inspection  or  are  discussed  elsewhere. 

Judgment. — (See  page  207.)  Inflated  meat,  according  to  the  regula- 
tions, is  to  be  declared  unfit  for  human  food. 

Fat  Tissue. — In  general,  fat  tissue  is  rarely  affected  by  pathological 
changes;  occasionally,  however,  the  following  characteristics  may  be 
present : 

1.  A  sclerotic  condition  of  the  fat  tissues  (lipoma)  occurs  occasionally 
in  the  kidney  fat  of  cattle  and  in  the  omentum  of  hogs  (especially  in 
hogs  from  Bakony-Hungary).     The  fat   tissue   appears  in  larger  or 
smaller  nodules,  opaque,  firm,  almost  like  skin  (called  fat  stones  by 
butchers) .  Microscopically,  a  hyperplasia  of  connective-tissue  structures 
at  the  expense  of  the  number  of  fat  cells  is  found. 

2.  Black  pigmentation  appears  occasionally  in  the  belly  fat  of  fat  black- 
haired  hogs,  very  probably  the  result  of  hemorrhages  (Ostertag) .     The  pigmenta- 
tion appears  as  numerous  black  irregularly  formed  spots,  frequently  branched 
in  the  shape  of  trees  or  like  veins.    Besides  a  deposit  of  coloring  matter  (melanosis 
diffusa)  may  be  frequently  observed  on  the  belly  fat  of  hogs,  giving  to  bacon 
a  bluish-black  appearance,  with  fine  dotted  lines,  and  at  some  places  a  brownish 
tint  (Glage,  Feuereissen) .    A  green  coloration  of  fat  tissue  and  muscles  near 
the  intestinal  tract,  on  the  breast  bone,  carpal  joint,  hips,  and  abdomen  was 
found  by  Beel  in  cattle  which  were  constantly  pastured.     In  boiling  the  dis- 
colored meat  of  these  regions  an  impregnated  "grass  odor"  appeared. 

3.  Multiple  fat  mcrosis  has  been  repeatedly  observed  in  the  retroperitoneal 
fat  tissue,  on  the  fat  of  the  mesentery,  and  on  the  omentum  in  the  form  of 
numerous  yellow-white  opaque  colonies  up  to  the  size  of  a  ten-cent  piece 
(Ostertag).    This  affection,  which  is  usually  of  no  consequence  in  meat  inspec- 
tion, may  be  associated  with  disease  of  the  pancreas  (page  215). 

Judgment. — See  page  207. 

Bone  Tissue. — The  various  diseased  conditions  involving  bones 
do  not  require  a  special  discussion  at  this  time,  since  they  mostly  occur 
as  purely  local  changes,  are  readily  intelligible  as  to  their  pathologic- 
anatomic  nature,  and  are  of  little  importance  in  meat  inspection. 
But  as  diseases  of  bone  tissue  and  bone  marrow  may  be  associated 
with  general  affections,  as  in  rachitis,  osteomalacia,  osteomyelitis, 


212  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

pyemia,  leukemia,  or  from  a  parasitic  cause  (tuberculosis,  actinomycosis, 
botryomycosis,  glanders,  echinococci),  they  are  described  under  these 
diseases.  For  pigmentation  of  bone  tissue,  see  page  205. 

Presternal  calcification  (Ostertag),  although  not  belonging  directly 
to  affectibns  of  the  bones,  is  best  considered  at  this  place.  Occa- 
sionally, knobby,  irregularly  shaped  formations,  with  calcified  contents 
ranging  in  size  from  a  nut  to  a  man's  fist,  are  found  in  the  presternal 
fat  cushion  of  cattle.  These  formations  sometimes  extend  into  the 
sternum  as  a  result  of  pressure.  In  a  superficial  examination  these 
calcifications  might  be  mistaken  for  tuberculous  lesions,  but  they  are, 
without  a  doubt,  of  traumatic  origin.  They  can  be  distinguished  from 
tuberculous  processes  by  their  resemblance  to  masses  of  plaster  of  Paris, 
pure  white  in  color  (Fig  82). 


FIG.  82 


Cross-section  through  the  point  of  the  breast  of  cattle,  with  presternal  calcification:  o,  lime  deposit; 
6,  normal  cushion  of  the  sternum;  c,  sternal  bones. 


Judgment. — See  page  207. 

Cartilaginous  Tissue. — The  pathological  changes  of  the  cartilagi- 
nous tissues  have  no  significance  for  the  inspector  of  meats. 

The  Other  Meat  Components. — Diseases  of  other  components  of 
meat  in  the  narrow  sense,  namely,  those  of  the  nervous  system,  the 
lymph  and  bloodvessels,  and  lymph  glands,  will  be  dicussed  later. 

Digestive    Apparatus. — 1.  Traumatic  Inflammation  of  the  Rutncu. 
Through  the  pricking  of  the  rumen  by  sharp  foreign  bodies  taken  up 
with  food,  a  chronic  inflammation  of  a  suppurative  or  sclerotic  nature 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS  OF   7YN,sr/<;,S'  AND  ORGANS     213 

develops.  This  results  in  thickening  of  the  wall  of  that  organ,  and 
also,  as  a  rule,  in  plastic  or  suppurative  inflammation  of  the  serous 
covering.  Adhesion  of  the  rumen  to  neighboring  organs  may  also 
develop,  generally  involving  the  diaphragm  first.  By  the  strong  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  of  the  rumen,  sharp  foreign  bodies  are  pushed 
forward,  principally  in  the  direction  of  the  diaphragm.  In  their  course 
around  the  tissues  these  foreign  bodies  form  fibrous  tissue,  fistulous 
tracts  and  abscesses,  with  greenish-yellow  pus.  The  abscess  may 
develop  between  the  stomach,  liver,  and  diaphragm,  and  may  become 
the  size  of  a  man's  head. 

After  perforation  of  the  diaphragm,  these  foreign  bodies  not  infre- 
quently strike  the  pericardium,  which  is  only  3  to  4  cm.  distant,  resulting 
in  pericarditis. 

For  septic  peritonitis  or  pleuritis  developing  from  perforation  of 
suppurative  material  into  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  cavities,  see 
Chapter  VIII,  page  297. 

2.  Peptic    Ulcers. — Round  or  peptic  ulcers  are  occasionally  found 
in  the  abomasum  of  calves  in  the  form  of  sharply  defined  erosions  in 
the  mucous  membrane,  with  slightly  rounded  edges.     The  ulcers  are 
not  necessarily  always  round;  they  may  extend  into  the  muscular 
coat  of  the  stomach;  and  occasionally  only  the  serous  membrane  of 

'the  thickness  of  paper  is  left  intact.  Similar  ulcers  may  also  occur 
in  the  duodenum.  The  inspector's  attention  is  usually  called  to  the 
presence  of  these  affections  in  the  abomasum,  by  peritonitis,  which 
corresponds  with  the  location  of  the  ulcers;  or  a  perforation  of  the 
ulcer  may  occur  shortly  before  death  of  the  animal,  as  during  trans- 
portation for  slaughter,  etc.,  and  in  such  cases  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  are  found  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

Should  the  ulcer,  through  an  early  perforation,  produce  septic  peri- 
tonitis, the  meat  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food.  In 
late  perforations  care  should  be  taken  in  the  judgment,  on  account 
of  a  repulsive  sour  odor  which  the  meat  may  possess  (boiling  test). 
Otherwise,  peptic  ulcers  are  of  no  importance  to  the  veterinary  inspector 
of  meats. 

[If  peritonitis  develops  in  consequence  of  a  peptic  ulcer  the  carcass 
should  be  condemned  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13, 
Section  18,  a.] 

3.  Diffuse  lymphadenia  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  abomasum 
is  sometimes  observed  in  cattle.    The  mucous  membrane  may  appear 
on  the  rigid  stomach  wall  to  the  thickness  of  5  cm.,  fatty,  grayish 
white,  and  glassy  in  places. 

4.  The  rarely  occurring  diphtheritic  inflammation  of  the  abomasum  of  cattle 
is,  according  to  Ledschbor,  due  to  a  long  filamentous  bacterium,  which  closely 
resembles  the  Bacillus  necrophorus. 

5.  Multiple  hemorrhages  in  the  intestinal  wall  have  been  occasionally  observed 
in  cattle  and  hogs;  in  the  latter  they  are  usually  associated  \vith  multiple  hemor- 
rhages of  the  muscles  (page  208).  The  origin  of  these  hemorrhages  is  not  entirely 
clear.     The  small  hemorrhages  may  be  of  purely  mechanical  origin  (severe 
coughing:,  asphyxia) ;  larger  ones,  on  the  other  hand,  may  have  other  causes,  such 


214  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

as  septic  and  other  acute  infections,  which,  however,  may  be  excluded  from 
cases  mentioned  here.  To  point  out  this  fact  is  the  only  reason  for  mentioning 
these  larger  hemorrhages. 

6.  For  the  characteristic  changes  of  the  intestines  in  hog  cholera,  see  Chapter 
VII. 

7.  Changes  of  the  liver,  formerly  known  as  angiomatosis,  were  recently 
designated    as    teleangiectasis    by    Jaeger;    this    condition   commonly 
occurs  in  older  animals,  most  frequently  in  a  multiple  and  spotted 
form  in  cows  (hemangioma  cavernosum  hepatis,  Kitt). 

Externally,  deepened,  irregularly  formed,  purple-red  to  bluish-black 
spots  under  the  serous  membrane  of  the  liver  can  be  seen  (Plate  II, 
Fig.  1).  They  vary  greatly  in  size;  sometimes  they  are  confined  to 
single  sections  of  the  liver,  but  they  may  also  involve  the  entire  organ. 
On  the  cut  surface  the  spots  appear  contracted,  of  a  reddish  tinge  and 
spongy  consistence  (blood  sponges),  and  are  sharply  separated  from  the 
otherwise  normal  liver  parenchyma. 

According  to  Jaeger,  the  anatomical  foundation  of  the  teleangiectatic  degen- 
eration in  the  liver  of  cattle  results  primarily  from  a  breaking  down  of  liver 
cells  in  groups,  leaving  the  bordering  capillary  endothelium  intact.  Thus  the 
unaffected  capillary  blood  circulation  extends  under  its  own  blood  pressure 
toward  the  margin  of  the  altered  parenchyma,  forming  sinuses,  and  finally 
cavernous  spaces.  There  arc  no  satisfactory  explanations  concerning  the  cause 
of  this  degeneration. 

8.  Chronic  interstitial  hepatitis  may  occur  in  various  stages  in  all 
food  animals.     In  the  early  stages  the  liver  appears  greatly  enlarged, 
grayish  brown  in  color,  firm  and  dense  (hypertrophic  cirrhosis),  while 
later  it  becomes  smaller  and  harder,  through  the  cicatricial  contraction 
of  the  interstitial  newly  formed  connective  tissue.     Portions  of  the 
parenchyma  become  obliterated,  while  intact  parts  of  the  latter  pro- 
trude so  that  the  surface  and  the  section  of  the  liver  appear  granular 
(atrophic  cirrhosis,  cirrhotic  granular  atrophy,  hob-nail  liver). 

According  to  Tschauner,  cirrhosis  of  the  liver  in  hogs  appears  to  be  produced 
occasionally  by  teeding  alcoholic  foodstuffs  which  are  in  the  act  of  fermenta- 
tion (swill).  Cirrhosis  of  the  liver  in  horses  is  of  importance  in  the  diagnosis 
of  the  so-called  " Schweinsberger  disease."  The  cirrhotic  connective-tissue 
proliferation  in  the  liver  of  cattle  having  distomatosis  is,  according  to  Jaeger, 
due  to  the  irritating  toxic  products  of  metabolism  from  distomas  in  the  bile 
ducts. 

9.  Multiple  liver  necrosis  is  observed  principally  in  cattle  (necrosis 
nodosa,  Kitt),  but  it  occurs  also  in  calves,  sheep,  hogs  (hog  cholera), 
horses,  and  dogs.    The  liver  is  frequently  enlarged,  icteric,  of  an  olive- 
brown  to  a  red-brown  color,  and  through  it  embolic,  pale  brown  or 
grayish-yellow  sharply  circumscribed  foci  or  nodules  in  large  numbers 
are  disseminated.     They  are  without  luster,  brittle,  compact,  and  sur- 
rounded in  the  early  stages  by  a  red  zone,  but  later  by  a  connective- 
tissue  capsule.     In  later  stages  the  necrotic  masses  are  occasionally 
transformed  into  a  greenish,  flaky,  pus-like  fluid.    The  causative  factor 


PLATE    II 


FIG.    1 


Angiomata  in  a   Beef  Liver. 


FIG.   2 


Section  of  a  Beef  Lung  showing  Contagious  Pleuropneumonia, 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS  OF   TIS8UEX  AND  ORGANS      215 

of  these  changes  is  the  Bacillus  necrophorus,  which  is  conveyed  to  the 
liver  by  the  portal  or  umbilical  vessels,  and  obtains  lodgement  in  that 
organ. 

10.  Calcareofibrous  nodules  are  quite  frequently  found   in  the  liver  of  the 
horse  (chalicosis  nodosa).      They  are  disseminated  in  all  parts  of  the  liver 
tissue,  as  sharply   circumscribed   yellow   to   yellowish-brown    formations,   of 
sizes  ranging  irom  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  milletseed,  and  are  parasitic  in 
origin. 

11.  A  peculiar  nodular  formation  in  a  calf's  liver  is  described  by  Langer,  who 
found  sharply  circumscribed  foci,  situated  under  the  capsule  of  the  liver.     They 
were  of  a  grayish-white  to  an  orange-red  color,  and  of  varying  sizes  up  to  a  millet- 
seed.  Langer  considers  the  foci  as  the  remains  of  an  infectious  disease,  which  is 
produced  by  a  bacillus  first  isolated  by  Bugge,  and  which  he  termed  Bacillus 
nodulifacius  bovis,  a  new  species  of   the  paratyphoid   group.      Manifestation 
of  a  general  disease  was  not  observed  in  the  affected  calves. 

12.  Fatty  necrosis  of  the  pancreas  is  observed  in  old,  very  fat  hogs.     The 
greatly  hypertrophied  fat  tissue  enveloping  the  pancreas  shows  numerous  dull 
grayish-yellow  or  grayish  nodular  areas,  which  are  dry,  hard,  or  cheesy.     The 
glandular  tissue  proper  appears  intact,  and  therefore  no  disturbances  in  the 
general  condition  of  the  animals  can  be  observed.    The  nature  of  the  necrosis 
is  still  unknown  (see  also  page  211). 

13.  [Mottled  livers  of  hogs  not  infrequently  reveal  the  presence  of  foreign 
material.     The  lesions  in  such  cases  are  manifested  as  slightly  raised,  light 
brownish   areas,  which   give  to  the   organ  a  somewhat  mottled  appearance 
entirely  unlike  a  parasitic  condition.     The  cut  surface  of  the  affected  area 
shows  a  lighter  color  than  the  normal  liver  tissue,  and  this  condition  is  more 
noticeable  around  the  hepatic  veins.     Investigations  as  to  the  cause  of  these 
lesions  in  the  liver  proved  that  they  result  from  the  foreign  materials,  such  as 
particles  of  fat  and  tissue  as  well  as  hair  and  wash  water,  which  are  driven  from 
the  sticker's  wound  into  the  thorax  and  thence  into  the  incised  heart  by  the 
beaters  in  the  dehairing  machine.     The  foreign  material  gains  entrance  into  the 
liver  through  the  heart  and  posterior  vena  cava.     The  occurrence  of  these 
changes  in  the  liver  of  swine  is  associated  with  a  certain  type  of  dehairing 
machine,  and  occur  only  when  the  carcass  passes  through  the  machine  head 
up.     Thus  the  objectionable  condition  may  be  overcome  by  requiring  that  the 
hogs  pass  through  this  type  of  machine  head  down.     All  livers  which  are  con- 
taminated in  the  manner  indicated  should  be  condemned.] 

Judgment. — See  page  207. 

Peritoneum. — -1.  Mesenteric  Emphysema  (Intestinal  Emphysema 
Jaeger)  of  the  Hog. — Single  or  grape-like  clusters  of  air-containing 
cysts  ranging  in  size  from  a  pin's  head  to  a  grape,  sometimes  hanging 
on  pedicles,  are  not  infrequently  found  on  the  small  intestines  and  its 
mesentery.  The  walls  of  the  cysts  appear  transparent,  or  are  colored 
red  by  hemorrhages.  Sometimes  the  air  cysts  accompany  the  course 
of  the  mesenteric  vessels  in  the  form  of  a  rose  wreath;  occasionally 
cysts  are  also  found  in  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines  and  in  the 
lymph  glands.  This  pneumatosis  was  investigated  by  Schmutzer  and 
Heydemann.  According  to  Jaeger,  it  is  due  to  the  Bacterium  coli 
lymphaticum  aerogenes,  which  belongs  to  the  coli  group  and  penetrates 
the  intestinal  wall,  where  it  produces  gas  as  a  result  of  its  great  ferment- 
ing qualities;  it  only  secondarily  extends  to  the  mesentery  in  severe 
cases. 


210  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODTCIXd  ANIMALS 

2.  Hypophrenic  Abscesses. — Abscess  formations  which  may  develop  at  any 
part  of  the  peritoneum  are  of  the  greatest  interest  in  meat  inspection,  and 
those  suppurations  which  not  infrequently  develop  between  the  diaphragm, 
liver,  and  kidneys  of  cattle  may  often  reach  a  considerable  size,  and  are  encap- 
sulated.    In  the  process  of  removing  the  abdominal  viscera,  these  abscesses 
are  frequently  cut  open,  resulting  in  a  soiling  of  the  viscera  and  the  parietal 
serous  membrane  of  the  body  cavities  with  the  contained  pus.     In  such  cases 
the  serous  membranes  should  be  removed  as  well  as  the  superficial  layer  of 
the  meat  which  has  been  contaminated.    For  other  results  from  these  abscesses, 
see  page  303. 

3.  For  peritonitis  as  a  result  of  heavy  infestation  by  cysticercus  tenuicollis, 
see  page  241. 

4.  Multiple  calcifications  in  the  form  of  flat  elevations  (Ostertag)  ranging 
in  size  from  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  lentil,  occur  comparatively  rarely  on  the 
peritoneum  in  cattle,  and  must  not  be 'mistaken  for  tuberculosis. 

Judgment.— See  page  207. 

Genito-urinary  Apparatus. — 1.  The  white-spotted  kidney  of  calves 
(nephritis  fibroplastica,  or  maculosa  alba)  occurs  more  frequently 
than  is  really  observed,  as  the  recognition  of  these  changes  is  fre- 
quently obscured  by  the  kidney  fat.  Slightly  projecting  whitish- 
gray  spots  may  be  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  kidney.  They  are  dis- 

FIG.  83 


Kidney  of  calf  with  fibroplastic  nephritis. 

tributed  over  numerous  lobules,  and  vary  in  size  from  a  millet  seed  to 
a  bean  and  even  a  hazelnut.  On  section  the  white  spots  appear  as 
wedge-shaped  or  circular,  juicy,  shining  areas,  which  extend  through 
the  cortex,  reaching  to  the  medullary  or  tubular  layer.  In  the  medullary 
substance  the  grayish-white  extensions  appear  less  frequently.  The 
parenchyma  of  the  kidney  is  generally  unchanged;  occasionally  a 
slightly  reddened  zone  is  found  around  the  white  areas;  or  less  fre- 
quently single  punctiform  hemorrhages  are  seen  in  the  parenchyma, 
which,  however,  are  probably  coincident. 

These  spotted  changes,  according  to  Rieck,  Kitt,  Kabitz  and  others,  are 
infectious  emboli,  while  Vaerst  considers  the  white  areas  as  embryonic  nodular 
remains  of  the  blastemic  state. 

De  Blieck  considers  the  process  as  an  acute,  hematogenous,  toxic,  parenchym- 
atous,  and  interstitial  nephritis,  a  diffused  focal  nephritis,  the  cause  of  which 


THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS  OF   TISSUES  AND  ORGANS     217 

is  unknown.  Guillebeau,  on  the  contrary,  emphasizes  the  fact  that  the  inflam- 
matory origin  of  the  spotted  kidney  is  neither  histologically  nor  clinically 
understood,  but  that  even  De  Blieck's  findings  speak  for  the  blastemic  theory. 

At  any  rate,  this  change  in  the  kidney  is  without  a  noticeable  influ- 
ence on  the  general  condition  of  the  calves;  besides,  its  harmless  nature 
is  also  confirmed  by  complete  disappearance  of  the  spots  during  the 
first  year  of  life. 

The  appearance  of  these  changes  in  a  diffused  extension  over  the  entire 
cortical  layer  of  the  kidney,  which  is  designated  by  Kitt  as  nephritis  alba, 
or  h'broplastica  diffusa,  is  quite  rare.  These  white  spots  are  confluent  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  entire  cortical  layer  appears  to  be  of  a  whitish  color.  In 
the  medullary  layer  there  is  always  a  hyperemia  in  such  cases  with  hemor- 
rhages, and  edematous  infiltration  of  parts  adjacent  to  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney. 

2.  From  purulent  nephritis,' which,  as  a  rule,  occurs  as  a  hemato- 
genous,  embolic,  focal  nephritis,  but  which  may  also  develop  gradually, 
should  be  distinguished  the  bacterial  (diphtheritic)  pyelonephritis,  which 
is  a  special  form.  It  appears  occasionally  in  cattle  on  one  or  both 
sides,  and' is  probably  of  hematogenous  origin  (Bollinger,  Ernst)  and 
of  a  cryptogenic  nature. 

The  kidney  is  prominently  enlarged,  and  its  surface  is  either  spotted 
with  gray  or  totally  gray  in  color.  The  kidney  is  enveloped  in  a  fat 
capsule  which  has  undergone  a  serous  infiltration.  On  section  a  col- 
lection of  slimy  pus,  with  a  strongly  smelling  urinous  odor,  is  noted  in 
the  distended  pelvis  of  the  kidney  and  in  the  dilated  calices,  the  walls 
of  which  are  considerably  thickened.  The  papillae  show  a  diphtheritic 
deposit,  and  pi-n-shaped,  radiating,  yellowish-gray  streaks  of  various 
breadths  extend  from  the  centre  toward  the  cortex.  In  this  location, 
and  also  in  normally  appearing  parts  of  the  kidney,  small,  suppura- 
tive,  softening  foci  may  be  found.  As  the  lesion  progresses  the  kidney 
tissue  degenerates  more  and  more,  until  finally  the  enormously  en- 
larged kidney  may  only  represent  a  thin-walled  cyst  filled  with  pus 
(pyonephrosis) .  The  ureter  on  one  or  both  sides  also  appears  dilated 
and  filled  with  pus  in  advanced  cases. 

The  Bacillus  renalis  bovis  is  accepted  as  the  cause  of  pyelonephritis  in  cattle, 
but  mixed  infections  also  occur,  so  that,  according  to  Kitt,  Cadeac,  Lucet, 
and  Ernst,  the  affection  may  be  considered  as  polybacterial,  similar  to  other 
suppurative  processes. 

In  the  judgment  of  pyelonephritis,  the  general  condition,  the  nutri- 
tive state,  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  other  suppurations  in  the 
body  must  be  considered. 

Unilateral  pyelonephritis  appears  generally  as  a  purely  local  affec- 
tion; if  bilateral,  retention  of  urine  must  be  suspected,  and  the  meat 
should  be  tested  by  boiling  for  odor  of  urine.  The  result  of  the  latter, 
and  also  other  changes  which  might  be  present,  determine  whether  the 
meat  should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality  or  be  condemned  as  totally 
unfit  for  human  food. 


218  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

[In  cases  of  bilateral  pyelonephritis  causing  retention  of  urine,  the 
carcass  should  be  condemned  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regu- 
lation 13,  Section  20.] 

3.  Cystic  and  bladder  kidneys  not  infrequently  appear  in  hogs,  cattle, 
and  occasionally  also  in  calves.    In  cystic  kidneys  the  disease  is  limited 
to  single  small  or  larger  sections  of  the  kidney  from  which  the  flow 
of  the  urine  is  prevented.    In  bladder  kidneys,  the  entire  kidney  repre- 
sents a  cyst  filled  with  urine  (hydronephrosis). 

When  hydronephrosis  is  found  affecting  both  sides,  greater  attention 
is  required  in  the  judgment  of  the  meat,  as  the  meat  not  only  in  the 
surrounding  parts,  but  also  at  distant  parts  of  the  body  may  be  watery. 
In  addition  to  this  edematous  condition,  the  meat  may  possess  a  urinous 
odor.  The  boiling  test  should  determine  the  extent  of  this  condition, 
and  in  accordance  with  the  objective  finding  of  the  meat,  it  should  be 
passed  or  declared  of  inferior  quality  or  condemned. 

[Frequently  only  one  kidney  is  found  cystic,  in  which  case  the  car- 
cass is  passed  for  food;  while  if  the  affection  is  bilateral,  causing  an 
edematous  condition  of  the  meat  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  or  if 
the  meat  possesses  a  urinous  odor,  the  carcass  should  be  condemned 
(B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  20).] 

4.  The  inflammations  of  the  uterus  are  of  considerable  interest  for 
the  inspector  on  account  of  their  relations  to  septicemia   (Chapter 
VIII,  page  300).     All  acute  inflammations  of  the  uterus,   following 
parturition,  or  as  a  result  of  fetal  and  placental  decomposition,  should 
be  considered  suspicious. 

5.  .Catarrh  of  the  uterus  may  result  in  hydrometra  and  pyometra, 
due  to    accumulations  of    mucopurulent    secretions   in    that    organ. 
Chronic  catarrh  (leucorrhea)  may  occasionally  be  followed  by  great 
emaciation,  thus  giving  sufficient  cause  to  declare  the  meat  of  inferior 
quality.    Otherwise,  the  suppurative  contents  of  the  uterus  are  of  no 
consequence  unless  pyemic  or  septicemic  manifestations  are  present. 

[In  acute  cases  of  diffused  metritis,  the  carcasses  should  be  con- 
demned (B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  18,  d).] 

6.  The  infectious  vaginal  catarrh   of  cattle    (colpitis   follicularis   infectiosa, 
vaginitis  granularis    infectiosa  bovis,   Raebiger)  is  probably  due  to  specific 
streptococci  (streptococcus  vaginitis  bovis,  Ostertag).     It  is  accompanied  by 
nodular  formation  in  the   inflamed   mucous  membrane,  but  is  of   no  impor- 
tance for  the  veterinary  inspector.   [According  to  the  investigations  of  Williams, 
infectious  vaginal  catarrh  or  granular  vaginitis  occurs  quite  extensively  in  the 
United  States,  although  previously  its  presence  had  not  been  recognized.     In 
the  ambulatory  clinics  of  the  New  York  State  Veterinary  College,  201  cases 
of  this  affection  were  treated  in  the  college  year  of  1909  and  1910.] 

Judgment. — For  the  judgment  of  the  diseases  of  the  urinary  and  sexual 
apparatus,  see  page  207. 

Udder. — 1.  Catarrh  of  the  udder  is  only  mentioned  as  it  has  been 
mistaken  for  tuberculosis  of  the  udder.  The  enlarged  quarters  of  the 
udder  are  harder.  From  the  teats  of  the  diseased  quarters,  a  thick  ropy 
secretion,  intermixed  with  pus  may  be  squeezed  out.  The  mammary 


THE  PRINCIPAL   AFFECTIONS  OF   TISSUES  AND  ORGANS     219 

lymph  glands  are  uniformly  swollen,  but  they  are  not  lumpy  and 
hard.  On  the  cut  surface  the  milk  ducts  are  dilated  and  filled  with 
the  ropy  secretion.  Their  walls  are  thickened,  and  occasionally  the 
mucous  membrane  shows  firm  fibrous  nodules,  which,  on  superficial 
observation,  resemble  tuberculous  nodules.  The  interparenchymatous 
connective  tissue  is  increased;  the  lobules  of  the  glands  are,  however, 
apparently  unchanged. 

In  the  course  of  catarrh  of  the  udder  some  of  the  milk  ducts  may 
become  obstructed  and  dilated,  so  that  cysts  will  develop,  which  on 
touch  are  lumpy  (milk  nodes)  and  are  filled  with  a  curdy  content. 

2.  Gangrenous  and  septic  mastitis  (Chapter  VIII,  page  300),  alone 
of  the  various  inflammations  of  the  udder,  will  be  discussed  at  this 
place  because  of  the  associated   severe  general   affection,   according 
to  which  the  judgment  should  be  made. 

A  catarrhal  form  of  mastitis,  which  leads  to  agalactia,  and  which  is  called 
in  Switzerland  "yellow  gait,"  is  caused  by  a  particular  streptococcus.  Dam- 
maun  and  Freese  described  an  infectious  inflammation  of  the  udder  in  sheep 
which  is  produced  by  rod-shaped  bacteria. 

3.  For  the  characteristic  changes  in  color  of  cows'  udders  on  boiling,  see 
Chapter  IX. 

Judgment. — For  the  judgment  of  the  diseases  of  the  udder,  compare 
with  page  207. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  18,  d, 
carcasses  which  are  affected  with  acute  diffused  mammitis  should  be 
condemned.] 

Respiratory  Apparatus. — 1.  Subpleural  hemorrhages  of  the  lung, 
which  are  very  frequently  seen  in  food  animals,  originate  at  the  time 
of  slaughter,  and  are  to  be  considered  as  hemorrhages  from  suffoca- 
tion. They  are  punctiform,  sharply  defined,  light  red  in  color,  and  are 
disseminated  over  the  entire  lung.  These  hemorrhages  are  absolutely 
of  no  importance  for  the  inspector,  and  should  not  be  mistaken  for 
ecchymosis  of  septic  origin. 

Inflammations  of  the  lungs  are  especially  important  if  of  a  specific  character, 
such  as  contagious  pleuropneumonia  in  cattle  and  swine  plague  (see  pages 
308  and  313. 

3.  Calcareofibrous  nodules  in  the  lungs  are  very  frequently  found 
in  horses  (chalicosis  nodularis).  They  are  scattered  irregularly  in  the 
parenchyma  of  the  lung,  and  are  usually  very  numerous,  firm,  and 
readily  peel  out.  They  vary  in  size  from  a  pin's  head  to  that  of  a  hemp- 
seed,  and  are  rarely  as  large  as  a  pea.  Their  color  is  white  or  whitish 
gray,  and  young  nodules  appear  glassy.  There  is  no  red  zone  sur- 
sounding  them.  The  origin  of  these  nodules,  which  occasionally  appear 
at  the  same  time  in  the  liver  (page  215),  might  be  traced  back  to  embolic 
invasion  of  animal  parasites  (Olt,  Kunnemann,  Schiitz,  Grips). 

In  differentiating  the  calcareofibrous  nodules  from  those  of  glanders, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  in  the  first  place  the  red  zone  is  absent; 
furthermore,  they  are  of  uniform  size  and  consistence,  possess  pro- 


220 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


nounced  inclination  toward  calcification,  while  all  manifestations  of 
glanders  are  absent.  Though  a  normal  condition  of  the  bronchial  glands 
might  have  some  weight  in  differentiating  from  glanders,  there  are 
instances  where  calcareofibrous  nodules  may  also  appear  in  the  lymph 
glands.  Besides,  the  histological  structure  of  the  nodules  determines 
the  nature  of  the  affection  (Figs.  84  and  85).  For  comparison  with 
the  structure  of  glanders  nodules,  see  Chapter  VIII,  page  288. 

Judgment. — For  the  judgment  of  diseases  of  the  respiratory  apparatus, 
see  page  207. 


FIG.  84 


FIG.  85 


Calcareofibrous  nodule  from  the  lung  of  a 
horse:  a.  connective-tissue  capsule;  b,  slightly, 
and  c,  markedly  calcined  centre.  (After  Kitt.) 


Calcareofibrous  nodules  from  the  lung  of  a 
horse:  a,  connective  tissue-capsule;  b,  calcified 
zone.  (After  Kitt.) 


4.  Anthracosis  of  the  lungs  occurs  in  horses  and  cattle,  as  well  as  in  dogs; 
in  the  latter  about  60  per  cent,  may  be  affected  (Feuereissen). 

5.  Pollution  of  the  lungs  with  blood  and  contents  of  the  stomach  may  follow 
the  slaughter  of  all  food  animals,  as  a  result  of  the  inhalation  of  these  sub- 
stances.    Most  frequently  it  occurs  in  animals  which  have  been  "shachted,'' 
but  is  found  also  in  sheep  (Miiller),  cattle,  and  hogs.    While  blood  can  be  readily 
recognized  by  the  irregularly  red-colored  sections  of  the  lungs,  the  aspiration  of 
food  can  be  determined  only  by  cutting  into  the  lung  in  the  posterior  third 
of  the  main  lobe.    Such  a  procedure  is  necessary  in  examination  for  the  presence 
of  scalding  water  in  the  lungs  of  hogs.    To  determine  the  extent  of  the  aspira- 
tion of  food,  it  is  recommended  that  during  the  act  of  cutting  the  bronchial 
lymph  glands  the  principal  bronchus  of  each  side  be  severed  at  the  same  time ; 
otherwise  the  aspirated  food,  which  does  not  extend  into  the  small  bronchi, 
cannot  be  seen. 

Judgment. — In  the  judgment  of  these  pollutions  of  the  lungs,  their  extent 
should  determine  the  disposition  of  the  organs.  If  the  aspiration  of  blood  is 
only  slight  and  the  amount  of  food  and  scalding  water  limited  to  the  trachea 
and  large  bronchi,  the  lungs  may  be  passed  after  a  thorough  cleansing.  In 
pronounced  aspiration  of  blood  the  lungs  should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality. 
In  the  presence  of  food  contents  or  scalding  water  in  the  deeper  sections  of 
the  bronchial  tubes,  the  lungs  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food. 

[Lungs  containing  aspirated  substances,  either  solids  or  liquids,  are 
condemned  in  the  United  States.] 

Pleura. — 1.  Petechia  of  the  pleura  may  be  present  in  perfectly  healthy 
food  animals  as  suffocation  hemorrhages  resulting  from  slaughter 
(page  219),  and  should  not  be  confused  with  hemorrhages  of  septic 
origin. 


'THE  PRINCIPAL  AFFECTIONS  OF  TISSUES  AND  ORGANS    221 

2.  False  neuromas  in  the  course  of  intercostal  nerves  are  not  infrequently 
observed  in  cattle.     They  are  new  formations  of  myofibromatous  nature,  of 
sizes  ranging  from  that  of  a  pea  to  a  hazelnut — seldom  larger — which  develop 
from  the  nerve  sheaths. 

3.  Relative  to  melanotic  pigmentation  of  the  pleura,  especially  in  calves,  see 
page  205. 

4.  Regarding  secondary  inflammation  of  the  pleura  in  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia  of  cattle,  swine  plague,  and  rinderpest,  see  these  respective  diseases. 

Judgment. — See  page  207. 

Circulatory  Apparatus. — 1.  Petechice  on  the  pericardium,  epicardium, 
and  endocardium  of  food  animals  are  mostly  the  result  of  asphyxiation 
at  the  time  of  slaughter,  especially  if  they  are  present  in  connection 
with  hemorrhages  of  the  pleura  and  with  those  of  the  lung  (page  219); 
but  they  may  also  result  from  sepsis  or  other  acute  infectious  diseases. 
Hemorrhages  occur  frequently  on  the  auriculoventricular  valves. 

Reddened  patches  at  the  level  of  the  column*  carnese  are  of  systolic  origin 
and  disappear  at  diastole;  they  indicate  a  systolic  pause  of  the  heart. 

2.  Pericarditis  is  most  frequently  observed  as  the  result  of  trau- 
matism  in  cattle,  due  to  the  pressing  forward  of  sharp  foreign  bodies 
in  the  rumen.    The  degree  and  the  form  of  such  traumatic  pericarditis 
may  vary  greatly.     The  judgment,  therefore,  is  influenced  by  the 
severity  as  well  as  possible  complications  from  disturbances  in  circula- 
tion and  from  fever.      In  febrile  conditions  it  must  be  remembered 
that  traumatic  pericarditis  may  be  of  septic  nature;  however,  it  must 
also  be  recognized  that  a  pericardial  content  with  offensive  odor  is 
not  sufficient  for  the  determination  of  a  diagnosis  of  sepsis  (Chapter 
VIII,  page  300). 

Besides,  pericarditis  of  serous  and  serofibrinous  form  may  be  observed  in 
hogs  as  an  accompanying  symptom  of  swine  plague  (Chapter  VIII,  page  308). 

Pericarditis,  from  which  recovery  has  been  made,  appears  not  infre- 
quently as  the  "villous  heart"  in  cattle  and  in  hogs. 

3.  Endocarditis  is  observed  most  frequently  in  hogs  as  a  verrucose 
valvular  form,  and  occurs  principally  as  a  result  of  swine  erysipelas 
infection.     Ulcerous  and  diphtheritic  endocarditis  may  be  of  toxic  or 
pyemic  origin. 

4.  Cystic  formations  (hematoma  and  lymph  cysts)  on  the  auriculoventricular 
valves  were  found  frequently  by  Klaeger  and  Glage  in  calves  and  hogs  and 
not  infrequently  by  Fischer  in  cattle. 

5.  Phlebectasis  is  found  in  older  food  animals  as  nodular  dilatations  of  the 
veins  in  parts  rich  in  bloodvessels,  principally  in  the  mesenteries. 

6.  The  formation  of  multiple  infarcts  in  the  spleen  as  a  result  of  endocarditis 
was  first  indicated  by  Ostertag.    The  splenic  infarcts  appear  like  wedge-shaped 
or  round  growths,  at  first  dark  red,  later  yellowish  and  white  in  color.    After 
the  resorption  of  the  areas  of  necrotic  infarct  there  usually  follows  consider- 
able shrinkage  of  the  spleen.     The  latter  also  follows  rotation  of  the  spleen. 

7.  Rotation  of  the  spleen  is  a  condition  to  which  Glage  has  called  attention; 
it  occurs  rarely.    The  splenic  tumor  which  develops  as  a  result  of  the  torsion  of 
the  bloodvessels  is  distinguishable  by  absence  of  softening  of  the  pulp. 

Judgment. — See  page  207. 


222  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

[Carcasses  affected  with  acute  pericarditis  should  be  condemned, 
according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  18,  a.  For 
judgment  of  other  lesions  of  the  heart  appearing  in  association  with 
various  general  affections,  see  these  respective  diseases.] 

Skin. — 1.  Reddening  of  the  skin  is  only  important  from  the  stand- 
point of  differential  diagnosis  in  hogs,  especially  in  connection  with  the 
presence  of  infectious  diseases  of  these  animals  (swine  erysipelas,  etc.). 

2.  For  granular  eruptions   (Schrotausschlag)   of  hogs,   see  Chapter 
VIII,  page  234. 

3.  [Pigmented  moles,  or  ncevi  pigmentosi,  are  seen  most  frequently  in 
the  skin  over  the  back  and  thighs  of  black  hogs,  and  are  congenital. 
They  appear  as  inky-black  irregularly  round  spots  from  one-eighth  to 
one-half  of  an  inch  in  diameter.    The  larger  moles  are  elevated,  and  are 
covered  with  stiff,  coarse  hair,  which  grows  straight  outward.    Usually 
only  a  few  are  present,  but  occasionally  an  animal  is  found  where  they 
are  quite  numerous.     If  the  small  moles  are  incised,  a  black  semifluid 
pigment  is  found  deposited  between  the  layers  of  the  skin,  while  in  the 
larger  moles  the  pigment  may  extend  into  the  fat  beneath.] 

4.  The  term  "sooty  mange"  is  applied  to  a  pustular  exanthema  of  young 
pigs,  which  leads  to  the  formation  of  pitch-like  scabs  (pitch  mange),  and  occurs 
as  an  accompanying  symptom  of  general  chronic  affections.     The  latter  and 
also  the  condition  of  the  animal  determine  the  disposal  of  the  meat. 

Central  Nervous  System. — Among  the  diseases  of  the  central  nervous  system 
the  only  one  which  need  be  mentioned  is  infectious  cerebrospinal  meningitis 
of  horses  (meningitis  cerebrospinalis  enzootica),  as  it  frequently  occasions  emer- 
gency slaughter.  It  is  generally  without  influence  upon  the  utilization  of  the 
meat,  but  in  cases  of  delayed  slaughter  incomplete  bleeding  may  be  present. 
If  the  disease  is  of  long  standing,  and  is  associated  with  marked  decubitus  or 
other  injuries,  as  well  as  traumatic  pneumonia,  a  certain  amount  of  caution  is 
advisable. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES 

Anemia  (Oligemia). — Anemia  appears  in  food  animals  as  symptomatic 
or  as  so-called  pernicious  anemia. 

Symptomatic  Anemia. — Symptomatic  anemias  are  expressions  of 
various  disturbances  in  the  metabolic  functions  of  the  body,  and  as 
etiological  factors  internal  parasites,  chronic  intestinal  or  pulmonary  affec- 
tions, chronic  cachexia,  and  tuberculosis  play  the  most  important  part. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — During  life  paleness  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane in  advanced  cases,  dulness,  loss  of  appetite,  and  emaciation 
point  to  anemia;  while  in  the  slaughtered  animal  it  is  observed  only 
in  advanced  cases  by  emaciation  and  slight  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
as  well  as  by  the  pale  appearance  of  the  muscles.  The  presence  of 
certain  organic  affections  indicates  the  cause  of  the  disease. 

Microscopic  examination  of  the  blood  may  show  considerable  decrease 
of  red  blood  corpuscles  (Shaper). 

Judgment. — The  judgment  depends  on  the  primary  affection  which 
may  be  present  and  on  the  nutritive  condition  of  the  carcass.  As 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES      223 

a  rule,  this  meat  may  be  passed  for  human  food,  and  only  in  advanced 
cases  should  it  be  declared  of  inferior  quality. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  24,  carcasses 
of  animals  which  are  too  anemic  to  produce  wholesome  meat  should 
be  condemned.  Advanced  cases  of  anemia  are  usually  associated  with 
pronounced  emaciation.] 

Pernicious  Anemia.— The  essential  primary  pernicious  or  progressive 
anemia  is  a  disease  which  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  explained.  It  is 
of  infectious  or  toxic  nature,  and  almost  entirely  confined  to  horses 
[producing  the  so-called  swamp  fever  or  infectious  anemia  in  the  United 
States].  The  disease  runs  an  acute  or  chronic  course. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Acute  cases  are  marked  by  intermittent  high  fever, 
with  greatly  increased  frequency  in  pulse,  and  rapid  emaciation  without  any 
indications  of  a  local  affection.  The  red  blood  corpuscles  undergo  a  marked 
change  in  form,  designated  as  poikilocytosis;  macrocytes  and  microcytes  are 
present.  In  chronic  disease  the  manifestations  are  the  same  as  in  symptomatic 
anemia.  In  slaughtered  animals,  acute  cases  show  a  cloudy  swelling  and 
fatty  degeneration  of  the  visceral  parenchyma  and  muscles,  with  hemorrhages 
in  most  of  the  organs,  especially  under  the  serous  membranes,  spleen  tumor, 
cellular  infiltration  of  the  bone  marrow,  hemoglobin  infarcts  of  the  kidneys, 
without  any  particular  conspicuous  affection  of  the  organs.  In  a  more  chronic 
type  pathological  changes  are  similar  to  those  of  symptomatic  anemia;  only 
the  bone  marrow  is  greatly  changed,  appearing  like  raspberry  jelly,  or  like 
embryonic  bone  marrow. 

Judgment. — On  account  of  great  emaciation  and  pronounced  changes 
in  the  muscles  and.  viscera,  the  meat  should  be  considered  badly  spoiled, 
and,  consequently,  unfit  for  human  consumption.  It  has  not  yet  been 
proved  that  this  meat  is  injurious  to  health. 

Hydremia. — A  watery  condition  of  the  blood  of  food  animals  occurs 
most  frequently  in  sheep  and  cattle.  It  develops  as  a  result  of  insuffi- 
cient assimilation  of  nutritive  substances,  or  from  excessive  feeding 
or  food  containing  a  large  amount  of  water,  such  as  swill  and  sugar 
beets.  In  the  first  instance  it  produces  chronic  disturbances  of  the 
blood-producing  organs  as  in  anemia,  with  which  disease  hydremia  is 
usually  associated.  The  symptoms  in  living  animals  depend  on  the 
extent  of  the  affection.  Edema  of  dependent  portions  of  the  body 
(neck,  brisket,  abdomen,  legs)  is  usually  present  even  in  the  earliest 
stages;  at  the  same  time  symptoms  of  anemia  are  apparent.  In  slaugh- 
tered animals  well-pronounced  changes  of  the  blood,  such  as  noticeable 
thinness  and  slight  coagulability,  are  only  found  in  advanced  cases. 
Furthermore,  the  subcutaneous  and  intermuscular  connective  tissue 
appears  edematous  and  transudates  are  in  the  body  cavities.  The 
muscles  are  relaxed,  and  rigor  mortis  is  riot  well  marked;  they  are  dis- 
colored and  grayish  red  only  in  very  advanced  cases  (cachexia).  In 
these  cases  there  are  also  pronounced  atrophy  and  gelatinous  infiltration 
of  the  fat  tissue. 

Judgment. — In  advanced  hydremia  the  meat  should  be  condemned 
as  unfit  for  human  food,  on  account  of  its  repulsive  changes,  and  the 
marked  emaciation. 


224  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

In  less  severe  cases  the  slaughtered  animals  are  allowed  to  hang 
for  twenty-four  hours,  since  experience  has  shown  that  a  large  portion 
of  the  transudates  and  edema  of  the  connective  tissue  disappears  by 
dripping  and  evaporation  and  through  its  resorption  by  the  muscle 
substance. 

In  cutting  the  carcass  it  becomes  evident  whether  a  distinct  watery 
condition  of  the  muscles  is  still  present  in  the  deeper  parts.  If  this 
cannot  be  noticed  the  carcass  is  released,  while,  if  visible,  the  meat 
should  be  sold  under  declaration  after  the  removal  of  the  watery  tissues, 
as  of  inferior  quality.  In  mild  cases  deterioration  occurs  very  rarely 
if  the  carcasses  are  allowed  to  hang. 

[In  case  hydremia  is  associated  with  emaciation,  or  if  the  carcass 
manifests  edema  of  the  muscles  and  connective  tissue,  in  consequence 
of  that  condition,  the  carcass  should  be  condemned,  according  to 
B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  24.] 

Leukemia. — True  leukemia  is  more  infrequent  in  food  animals  than 
pseudoleukemia,  which,  however,  should  be  distinguished  etiologically 
and  anatomically  from  the  former. 

To  what  extent  these  diseases  are  of  an  infectious  nature  is  not  defi- 
nitely known. 

True  Leukemia. — This  disease  depends  on  a  marked  and  continuing 
increase  of  white  corpuscles  (leukocytes  and  lymphocytes),  and  origi- 
nates in  hyperplasia  of  lymphadenoid  tissue,  i.  e.,  the  spleen,  lymph 
glands,  bone  marrow,  and  other  organs.  The  blood  in  this  condition 
may  contain  a  large  increase  of  lymphocytes  (leukemia  lymphatica). 
On  the  other  hand,  the  leukemia  may  be  due  to  a  migration  of  leuko- 
cytes from  the  bone  marrow  resulting  in  myelogenic  leukemia.  The 
clinical  and  anatomical  picture  of  the  disease  likewise  varies  accord- 
ingly. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions.— In  living  animals  the  presence  of  leukemia 
is  only  suspected,  as  a  rule,  in  the  lymphatic  form,  owing  to  enlarge- 
ment of  most  of  the  accessible  lymph  glands.  There  is  also  a  dulness  of 
the  animal,  and  a  paleness  of  the  mucous  membranes.  Examination 
of  the  blood  establishes  the  correct  diagnosis.  The  slaughtered  animal 
shows  slightly  coagulable  pale  blood,  the  serum  of  which  may  be  of 
a  milky  or  pus-like  consistence;  the  coagulum  in  the  heart  and  large 
bloodvessels  is  similar  in  appearance.  There  is  hyperplasia  of  the 
spleen  and  of  the  lymph  glands,  which  may  reach  enormous  propor- 
tions; at  the  same  time  the  lymph  glands  are  frequently  very  soft 
and  moist.  The  bone  marrow  has  either  undergone  a  lymphadenoid 
change  to  a  raspberry  jelly  consistence,  or  it  is  like  pus.  Leukemic 
infiltrations  or  tumors  may  be  present  in  any  of  the  organs;  also  hemor- 
rhages in  the  kidneys,  serous  and  mucous  membranes,  as  well  as  in 
the  muscles.  The  muscles  are  considerably  paler  than  normal,  gray, 
flabby,  arid  permeated  with  hemorrhages.  The  characteristic  micro- 
scopic appearance  of  the  blood  cannot  be  discussed  here. 

Judgment. — On  account  of  the  severe  and  pronounced  changes,  the 
meat  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES     225 

[Carcasses  affected  with  leukemia,  which  is  invariably  associated 
with  a  general  swelling  of-  the  lymphatic  glands,  should  be  condemned, 
according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  18,  h.} 

Pseudoleukemia. — The  course  of  this  disease  manifests  the  same 
clinical  aspect  as  true  leukemia.  Pseudoleukemia  (Hodgkin's  disease) 
is  principally  distinguished  from  the  latter  through  the  fact  that  the 
numerical  proportion  between  the  leukocytes  and  erythrocytes  of  the 
blood  is  not  disturbed.  Pseudoleukemic  conditions  occur  occasionally 
in  cattle  and  hogs,  but  rarely  to  such  a  degree  that  the  general  con- 
dition of  the  animal  appears  greatly  disturbed. 

The  anatomical  lesions  do  not  differ  from  those  of  leukemia.  Haffner 
found  lymphoid  areas  in  the  form  of  grayish  spots  throughout  the 
entire  muscular  system  of  a  sow.  Carcasses  showing  pseudoleukemia 
should  be  judged  like  those  with  true  leukemia. 

Rachitis. — Rachitis,  which  appears  most  frequently  in  young  hogs, 
depends  on  an  insufficient  calcification  of  the  periosteal  tissues,  and  on 
the  irregular  ossification  of  the  cartilage,  causing  excessive  proliferation 
of  cartilaginous  and  periosteal  tissue  (Kitt). 

The  clinical  findings  consist  of  enlargements  of  the  bones,  especially 
on  the  epiphyses  and  cartilages  of  the  ribs;  bending  of  the  extremities 
and  of  the  vertebral  column;  and  enlargements  of  the  nose  and  superior 
and  inferior  maxillary  bones  (snuffle  disease),  which  may  be  observed 
in  hogs.  The  manifestations  in  the  slaughtered  animal  correspond 
to  the  clinical  findings  and  to  the  stage  of  the  disease.  In  advanced 
cases  lesions  of  severe  nutritive  disturbances  and  of  cachexia  may  be 
present  in  the  meat. 

Judgment. — In  the  beginning  of  rachitis,  when  nutritive  conditions, 
are  good,  there  is  no  ground  for  condemnation.  When  the  disease  is 
of  medium  degree  with  pronounced  changes  of  the  bones  in  addition 
to  those  affecting  the  bones  of  the  head,  the  meat  is  considered  of 
inferior  quality.  Condemnation  becomes  necessary  in  very  rare  cases 
with  cachectic  changes  of  the  muscles,  and  considerable  emaciation. 

[Carcasses  affected  with  rachitis  in  an  advanced  degree  should  be 
condemned,  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  22.] 

Osteomalacia.— This  brittle  condition  of  the  bones,  called  osteop- 
sathyrosis,  is  a  softening  of  the  bones  of  mature  animals  as  a  result 
of  a  diminution  of  the  lime  contents  and  a  partial  transformation  of 
the  bone  into  an  osteoid  mass  (Kitt) .  Klimmer  and  Schmidt  designate 
this  disease,  which  occurs  most  frequently  in  cattle,  as  a  halisteresis 
ossium,  and  consider  rachitis  and  osteomalacia  as  identical  in  their 
nature. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  most  marked  clinical  manifestation 
is  the  occurrence  of  bone  fractures  (fractures  of  ribs  and  pelvis)  with- 
out any  corresponding  cause  being  apparent.  There  are  also  associated 
nutritive  disturbances,  swellings  of  the  joints,  and  painful  gait;  later 
emaciation,  hardened  skin,  and  cachexia.  The  slaughtered  animals 
show  hyperemia  of  the  diseased  bones,  thinning  of  the  hard  outer 
part,  softening  of  the  bone  substances,  and  even  its  transformation 
15 


220  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

into  a  fibrous  tissue,  transformation  of  the  marrow  of  the  bones  into 
a  dark  yellow  to  dark-red  jelly-like  mass,  bone  fractures,  peeling  off 
of  the  periosteum,  and  the  wearing  away  of  the  joint.  Although  pro- 
nounced changes  of  the  meat  appear  usually  only  in  cachectic  condi- 
tions, occasionally  they  may  be  observed  earlier,  according  to  Klimmer 
and  Schmidt.  On  account  of  physical  changes  of  the  walls  of  the  blood- 
vessels, marked  serous  infiltrations  of  the  bordering  tissues  develop, 
the  muscles  become  flabby,  watery,  and,  as  a  rule,  darker  and  softer; 
their  reaction  is  generally  alkaline.  The  fat  tissue  appears  atrophied 
in  the  later  stages.  The  preservative  quality  of  the  meat  is  poor. 

Judgment. — According  to  Klimmer  and  Schmidt,  animals  affected  with 
osteomalacia  should  only  rarely  be  passed  without  restriction.  They 
recommend  judging  meat,  finally,  twenty-four  hours  after  slaughter. 
If  emaciation  and  slight  changes  in  the  meat  are  present  at  that  time, 
the  animal  should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality.  If  pronounced  changes, 
and  especially  cachectic  conditions,  are  noticeable,  the  judgment  must 
be  made  for  total  condemnation. 

[Carcasses  showing  pronounced  changes  of  osteomalacia  should  be 
condemned,  according  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  22.] 

Sarcomatosis  and  Carcinomatosis. — These  belong  here,  but  have  been  con- 
sidered on  page  206. 

Poisoning  in  Slaughtered  Animals. — Poisoning  of  slaughtered  animals 
is  only  of  importance  from  a  meat  hygiene  standpoint  when  changes 
have  occurred  in  the  flesh  as  a  result  of  the  toxic  action  of  the  poisons, 
or  when  the  meat  itself  has  been  poisoned. 

As  a  rule,  poisoning  in  slaughtered  animals  is  rare.  Still,  the  owners 
of  the  animals  frequently  consider  some  diseases  as  such,  since  the 
layman  is  inclined  to  view  all  suddenly  occurring  affections  as  due  to 
this  cause.  Poisoning  is  usually  accidental,  the  poisonous  substances 
being  ingested  with  the  food  or  while  searching  for  food;  or  it  may 
be  the  result  of  improper  administration  of  drugs. 

For  the  clinical  symptoms  and  pathology  of  various  poisonings 
in  living  animals,  the  reader  is  referred  to  text-books  on  toxicology, 
as  only  general  remarks  may  be  indulged  in  here  with  regard  to  the 
findings  in  the  slaughtered  animals.  The  following  groups  of  intoxica- 
tion are  to  be  differentiated: 

1.  Poisons  which  exert  a  pronounced  local  effect  and  those  which 
primarily  affect  the  parts  with  which  they  come  in  contact  are  relatively 
easy  of  recognition.  To  these  belong,  among  others,  caustics,  acids, 
alkalies,  and  salts;  phosphorus,  arsenic,  catharidin,  and  also  insect 
and  snake  venom.  Marked  inflammation,  swelling,  hemorrhages,  and 
eschars,  especially  in  the  digestive  tract  and  on  the  skin,  occur  at  the 
points  of  contact  with  the  poison,  but  the  principal  effect  of  the  poison 
is  usually  secondary,  and  is  to  be  sought  in  disturbances  of  function 
of  the  more  important  body  organs. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES     227 

2.  Some  of  the  blood  poisons  combine  with  the  hemoglobin  of  the 
red  cells  (carbon  monoxide,  hydrocyanic  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen) 
and  reduce  their  functional  power  as  carriers  of  oxygen;  while  others 
(nitrites,  iodine,  potassium  chlorate,  pyrogallol,  picric  acid,  aniline, 
carbon  bisulphide,  etc.)  destroy  the  red  cells  and  form  methemoglobin. 
As  a  result,  the  blood  will  appear  light  violet  to  cherry  red  and  even 
chocolate  brown  in  color.    These  changes  may  not  be  marked,  however, 
if  the  animals  have  been  slaughtered  early  on  account  of  the  serious 
effect  of  the  poison  on  the  central  nervous  system.     Urine  of  a  red 
to  dark-red  color  will  doubtlessly  be  present  in  severe  intoxication 
by  poisons  of  the  latter  group. 

3.  With  poisons  which  act  on   the  nerves  and  heart,  anatomical 
changes,  as  a  rule,  are  not  demonstrable,  in  spite  of  extreme  nervous 
irritation  or  paralysis. 

For  the  purpose  of  meat  inspection,  another  group  might  be  added 
to  the  foregoing: 

4.  Those   which   develop   marked    odor   and   thereby   reveal   their 
presence  in  the  slaughtered  animal,  such  as  chloroform,  ether,  alcohol, 
petroleum,  chloral  hydrate,  camphor,  ethereal  oils,  phosphorus,  carbolic 
acid,  etc.     The  effect  of  these  drugs  would  be  similar  to  one  of  the 
three  classes  already  mentioned. 

As  recognition  of  poisonings  and  their  essential  causes  may  be  difficult 
in  certain  instances,  it  is,  in  many  cases,  only  possible  to  establish 
a  probable  diagnosis,  unless  an  exact  chemico-analytical  examination 
is  made.  Such  an  examination  is  rarely  practicable  for  purposes  of 
meat  inspection  on  account  of  the  amount  of  time  required,  and  even 
then  it  may  fail  in  some  cases. 

Judgment. — The  judgment  of  this  class  of  food  animals  is  dependent 
upon  the  separation  of  the  meat  proper  in  its  narrow  sense  from  the 
viscera.  Of  the  viscera,  the  stomach  and  intestinal  canal  will  always  have 
to  be  condemned  as  dangerous  to  health.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
other  viscera  are  harmless  in  a  number  of  instances,  while  in  doubtful 
cases,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  poison  and 
the  probable  course  it  pursues  in  the  organism.  In  one  case  the  udder 
of  a  cow  was  found  dangerous  to  health,  the  animal  having  been  fed 
large  quantities  of  veratrum  album.  In  the  subcutaneous  administra- 
tion of  poisonous  substances,  the  site  of  injection  and  its  vicinity,  as 
well  as  the  associated  lymphatic  vessels  up  to  and  including  the  nearest 
lymph  glands,  are  to  be  removed. 

Careful  observations  by  Frohner  and  Knudsen  lead  to  the  assumption 
that  meat  in  "medicinal  treatment  of  an  animal  with  any  drug  cannot 
result  in  becoming  dangerous  to  health,"  and  what  holds  good  for 
the  medicaments  of  powerful  action  as  the  result  of  experimental  and 
observational  research  applies  also  to  other  poisonous  drugs. 

Whether  the  meat  is  of  reduced  or  impaired  value  in  case  of  an 
animal  slaughtered  on  account  of  having  been  poisoned,  depends 
on  the  associated  conditions  or  circumstances  and  the  nutrition  of 
the  animal.  It  may  be  precluded,  of  course,  that  consumers  will  be 


228  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

diced  against  meat  of  this  class.  The  value  of  it  is  below  par  as 
soon  as  odorific  poisons  have  given  the  meat  an  abnormal  odor.  (See 
boiling  test,  page  149.) 

Meat  of  poisoned  animals  is  always  to  be  considered  unfit  for  human 
food  whenever  a  nauseating  or  loathsome  odor  is  present,  when  septic 
infections  are  observed,  or  when  marked  changes  in  the  meat,  such 
as  emaciation  and  edema,  occur  associated  with  poisoning. 

[The  judgment  of  this  class  of  food  animals  in  the  United  States 
is  carried  out  on  the  same  principles  as  those  followed  in  Germany.] 

Auto-intoxications  in  Slaughtered  Animals. — By  auto-intoxication  is 
understood  the  passage  of  toxic  substances  developed  in  the  intestines 
(enterogen),  or  in  the  tissues  (histogen),  into  the  fluids  of  the  body. 
The  transition  of  such  poisons  is  caused  either  by  the  presence  of 
exciting  or  toxic  metabolic  products,  by  a  physiological  increase  in  their 
production,  or  as  a  result  of  their  incomplete  destruction.  In  the  same 
manner  the  blood  may  also  receive  toxic  substances  in  disturbances 
or  suspension  of  the  functions  of  certain  organs. 

Cholemia. — The  presence  of  the  constituents  of  bile  in  the  blood  is, 
strictly  taken,  only  a  symptomatic  condition,  a  well-marked  manifes- 
tation of  which  consists  in  a  yellow  coloration  of  the  tissues,  called 
jaundice  (icterus).  The  etiological  classification  of  cholemic  affections 
into  catarrhal,  hepatoxemic,  and  hematogenic  icterus,  is  also  to  be 
considered  from  the  standpoint  of  meat  inspection. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Of  the  clinical  symptoms,  the  yellow  colora- 
tion of  the  mucous  membranes  is  of  importance  in  meat  inspection, 
and  also  the  fact  whether  a  general  affection  is  absent  or  present.  In 
the  latter  case,  there  are  present  severe  organic  changes,  or  an  intoxica- 
tion (lupinosis,  phosphorus  poisoning),  or  an  infectious  disease  (sepsis, 
anthrax,  swine  plague,  influenza),  with  its  characteristic  symptoms. 
The  anatomical  lesions  are  dependent  upon  the  original  cause  and 
are  associated  with  yellow  discoloration  of  the  tissues.  The  discoloration 
is  not  only  noticeable  to  a  high  degree  on  the  serous  membranes,  but 
also  on  -all  tissues  and  organs,  and  shows  also  occasionally  distinct 
greenish-color  tints.  In  animals  with  normal  white  fat  tissue  the 
slightest  degree  of  yellow  coloration  is  also  recognizable  on  the  fat, 
but  this  must  not  be  mistaken  for  the  yellow  coloration  resulting  from 
feeding,  and  the  old  age  discoloration  of  the  fat  in  cattle. 

Judgment.  —  The  judging  of  icteric  animals  should  be  carried  out 
only  in  daylight.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  slight  yellow  colora- 
tions may  almost  entirely  disappear  within  a  certain  time  after  death, 
as  a  result  of  the  reductive  action  of  the  body  cells;  therefore,  slightly 
icteric  carcasses  are  judged  only  after  twenty-four  hours.  In  severe 
forms  of  icterus  with  parenchymatous  degeneration  as  a  result  of 
infections  or  intoxications,  this  is  not  necessary.  In  the  latter  case 
the  meat  is  spoiled  in  a  high  degree,  and  is  unfit  for  human  consump- 
tion. Otherwise,  in  cases  which  are  pronounced  icteric,  the  meat 
should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality,  while  it  may  be  passed  if  in 
twenty-four  hours  after  slaughter  the  yellow  coloration  disappears, 
or  if  only  a  nominal  discoloration  remains. 


DISEASES  OF  THE  BLOOD  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  DISEASES     229 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Regulations,  carcasses  affected  with 
icterus  and  showing  the  characteristic  yellow7  or  greenish-yellow7  dis- 
coloration after  proper  cooling  should  be  condemned,  while  those 
which  lose  the  discoloration  after  cooling  may  be  passed  for  food.] 

Uremia. — [This  term  is  applied  to  certain  clinical  manifestations 
caused  by  the  retention  of  toxic  substances  in  the  blood  which  ordi- 
narily are  excreted  with  the  urine.  The  nature  of  the  substances 
in  question  remains  obscure.]  The  occurrence  of  uremia  in  food  ani- 
mals is  limited,  with  a  few  exceptions,  to  male  individuals,  in  which 
the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the  urethra  (S-shaped  bending  in  rumi- 
nants and  in  hogs)  favor  its  occurrence.  The  urethra  is  principally 
the  seat  of  obstructions  with  concrements,  which  as  a  result  produce 
gangrene  of  the  urethra  or  a  rupture  of  the  bladder.  The  absorption 
of  the  constituents  of  urine  effused  into  the  periurethral  connective 
tissue,  or  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  results  in  a  uremic  poisoning 
of  the  blood.  Very  rarely  uremia  may  also  develop  as  a  result  of  an 
insufficient  excretion  of  the  constituents  of  urine,  as,  for  instance,  in 
bilateral  pyelonephritis  of  cattle,  or  in  the  presence  of  bilateral  cystic 
kidneys. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions.— The  living  animals  show  the  known  symp- 
toms of  retentio  urines,  which  it  is  true,  in  indolent  steers,  is  not  very 
pronounced.  After  the  resorption  of  urine,  febrile  symptoms,  accel- 
erated pulse,  pronounced  psychic  depression,  strong  urinary  odor  of 
the  expirations,  uremic  convulsions,  and  under  certain  conditions 
even  subnormal  temperatures  are  manifested.  On  the  slaughtered 
animal  and  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  carcass  pronounced  urinary 
odor  may  be  noted,  which,  however,  is  absent  in  fresh  cases.  Corre- 
sponding with  the  cause  there  may  be  found  an  infiltration  of  urine 
in  the  scrotal  region,  rupture  of  the  bladder  with  peritonitis  or  severe 
kidney  changes.  The  muscles  have  a  distinct  uriniferous  odor,  which 
gradually  becomes  less  marked  with  the  increased  cooling  of  the  carcass ; 
intermuscular  hemorrhages  may  also  be  present. 

Therefore,  in  the  examination  of  a  cooled  carcass  in  which  uremia 
is  suspected,  the  meat  should  be  always  subjected  to  a  boiling  test, 
during  which  the  presence  of  a  urinary  odor  becomes  recognizable. 

Judgment. — The  judgment  should  be  made  only  after  the  cooling 
of  the  meat,  and  the  employment  of  the  boiling  test.  If  during  the 
latter  only  a  very  slight  uriniferous  odor  is  perceptible  which  occurs 
in  fresh  cases  exclusively,  the  meat  may  be  passed  for  human  con- 
sumption, but  should  be  declared  of  inferior  quality.  In  advanced 
uremia  the  odor  of  the  meat  becomes  so  intensely  uremic  on  account 
of  its  highly  spoiled  condition  that  it  must  be  condemned  as  unfit 
for  human  food. 

[The  Federal  Meat  Inspection  Regulations  provide  that  carcasses 
which  give  off  the  odor  of  urine  should  be  condemned.] 

Hemoglobinemia  of  Horses. — The  hemoglobinemia  of  horses,  also 
designated  as  hemoglobinuria,  azoturia,  and  lumbago,  is  usually  a 
rheumatic  myositis  with  dissolution  of  the  coloring  matter  of  the 


230  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

muscles.  It  probably  results  from  an  auto-intoxication  of  myogenic 
origin,  in  which  the  muscular  coloring  matter  and  other  transformed 
products  of  the  existing  myositis  enter  the  circulation,  producing  disin- 
tegration of  the  red  blood  cells  and  elimination  of  the  hemoglobin  with 
the  urine. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Of  the  clinical  symptoms,  the  well-known 
dark  red  to  dirty  brown  and  black  coloration  of  the  urine,  and  the 
paralysis-like  weakness  of  the  hind-quarters  are  especially  conspicuous. 
Mucous  membranes  are  highly  congested  and  show  a  dirty  discolora- 
tion; the  temperature,  on  the  other  hand,  is  usually  only  very  slightly 
elevated.  In  the  slaughtered  animal  the  blood  is  of  a  varnish  color 
and  tar-like;  edematous  swelling  and  pale  coloring  of  the  psoas  and 
croup  muscles,  as  well  as  of  the  quadriceps  femoris,  may  be  noted  as 
a  result  of  parenchymatous  myositis.  Secondary  lesions  are:  Swell- 
ing of  the  liver  and  spleen,  infiltration  of  the  red  bone  marrow,  paren- 
chymatous nephritis,  and  hemorrhages  in  various  organs.  In  cases  of 
longer  duration,  septic  lesions  may  be  present  as  a  result  of  decubitus 
gangrene. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  horses  slaughtered  in  the  early  stages  of 
this  disease  may  be  passed  for  food.  Later,  insufficient  bleeding  and 
muscular  changes  render  the  meat  unfit  for  human  consumption  on 
account  of  the  highly  spoiled  condition. 

[Hemoglobinemia  of  horses  is  at  the  present  time  of  no  interest  to 
meat  inspection  in  the  United  States,  as  horses  are  not  considered 
food  animals  in  this  country.] 

According  to  SchlegePs  investigation,  another  more  rarely  occurring  infec- 
tious hemoglobin emia  of  horses  must  be  mentioned;  he  designates  it  as  an 
infectious  spinal  meningitis,  caused  by  the  Streptococcus  melano genes.  The 
later  stages  of  this  infectious  hemoglobinemia  pass  off  under  the  semblance  of 
septicemia. 

Parturient  Paresis. — Parturient  paresis  (parturition  fever,  calf  fever, 
milk  fever)  is  observed  principally  in  cows;  more  rarely  in  gcats  and 
hogs.  While  this  affection  until  recently  was  considered  as  an  auto- 
intoxication in  which  the  udder  was  supposed  to  be  the  place  for  the 
development  of  toxins  (Sonnenberg),  recent  publications  (Meier, 
Gebauer  and  others),  and  especially  the  beneficial  results  following 
the  air  treatment  of  this  disease,  make  it  apparent  that  the  affection 
is  the  result  of  a  circulatory  disturbance  in  the  brain.  It  is  possible, 
however,  that  both  causes  must  be  given  consideration.  The  disease 
appears,  as  a  rule,  in  twelve  to  forty-eight  hours  after  parturition; 
it,  however,  has  been  observed  before  that  time. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  conspicuous  symptoms  in  the  living 
animal  are  characteristic  manifestations  of  depression  and  paralysis. 
If  these  have  advanced  to  a  certain  degree,  the  animals  will  lie  with 
their  legs  half  way  bent  or  stretched  out,  and  their  heads  turned  to 
the  side,  resting  on  the  thorax.  At  the  same  time  there  are  present 
somnolence,  ptosis,  absence  of  skin  reflexes,  paralysis  of  the  muscles 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  231 

of  the  tongue  and  pharynx,  and  salivation.  As  a  result  of  the  paralysis 
of  the  muscles  of  the  stomach,  intestines  and  bladder,  flatulency  and 
retention  of  urine  develop.  The  body  temperature  is  unevenly  distrib- 
uted; the  internal  temperature  is  slightly  elevated  only  in  the  beginning 
of  the  disease;  later  it  is  normal  or  subnormal. 

On  the  slaughtered  animal  the  findings  are  principally  negative. 
The  uterus  is  usually  strongly  contracted  and  without  abnormal  con- 
tents; the  abdominal  viscera  are  frequently  highly  injected,  while 
insufficient  bleeding  will  be  noted  in  delayed  slaughter. 

The  recognition  of  this  disease  in  the  living  animal  is  very  easy. 
Nevertheless,  a  careful  examination  is  necessary  in  order  to  determine 
the  possible  presence  of  other  puerperal  affections  (sepsis),  special 
attention  being  paid  to  the  absence  of  high  fever  and  to  whether  there 
are  tenesmus  or  indications  that  the  animal  was  given  cold  water  enemas. 
On  the  slaughtered  animal  the  diagnosis  must  be  made  by  the  exclusion 
of  other  diseases  and  by  giving  consideration  to  the  history  of  the 
case.  First  of  all,  the  attention  should  be  directed  to  the  absence  of 
inflammatory  changes  in  the  uterus  and  the  genital  organs,  as  well  as 
to  the  characteristic  lesions  of  sepsis. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  which  are  slaughtered  on  account 
of  parturient  paresis  is  not  injurious  to  human  health.  In  early 
slaughter  and  in  well-nourished  animals  there  is  sometimes  no  ground 
for  condemnation.  Delayed  slaughter  renders  the  carcass  inferior 
in  quality  on  account  of  the  greater  blood  content  of  the  meat.  The 
carcass  must  be  condemned  when  complications  with  sepsis  are  present, 
or  when  marked  substantial  changes  of  the  meat  or  severe  internal 
lesions  are  present.  If  an  infusion  of  iodide  of  potassium  or  iodide  of 
sodium  has  been  made  into  the  udder,  which  may  transmit  a  peculiar 
stale  odor  and  taste  to  the  meat  (boiling  test),  it  should  be  always 
condemned  on  account  of  its  repulsiveness.  Owing  to  the  repeated 
administration  of  strong-smelling  remedies  (camphor,  turpentine, 
ether,  and  others),  their  possible  absorption  by  the  meat  should  not 
be  forgotten  and  the  boiling  test  applied  (see  page  149). 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Regulations  carcasses  of  animals  show- 
ing symptoms  of  milk  fever  at  the  time  of  slaughter  should  be  con- 
demned. This  action  is  based  not  only  on  the  changes  of  the  meat 
relative  to  its  consistence,  color,  etc.,  but  also  on  the  present  view  of 
the  pathology  of  the  disease,  which  suggests  an  auto-intoxication.] 


PARASITIC   DISEASES 

The  diseases  of  food  animals  caused  by  animal  parasites — the  diseases 
of  invasion — are  either  of  purely  local  nature  (diseases  of  organs), 
or  they  appear  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  may,  therefore,  be 
designated  as  general  parasitic  affections.  According  to  their  impor- 
tance in  meat  inspection,  the  animal  parasites  of  food-producing  animals 
may  be  classified  as  follows: 


232  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODVCING  ANIMALS 

(a)  Parasites  which  are  not  injurious  to  man:  To  this  class  belong 
all  parasites  represented  on  pages  232  to  242  (with  the  exception  of 
Linguatula  rhinaria),  and  those  protozoa  which  excite  general  parasitic 
affections. 

(6)  Parasites  ivhich  may  become  injurious  to  man  only  indirectly; 
Echinococci  and  pentastomes. 

(c)  Parasites  which  are  transmissible  to  man  by  the  ingestion  of  meat; 
Pork  and  beef  measles  and  trichinae. 

Parasitic  Diseases  of  Organs.— The  parasites  of  organs  may  be 
grouped  together  in  so  far  as  judgment  in  meat  inspection  is  concerned. 
As  has  been  stated,  they  are  not  transmissible  to  man.  The  organs 
invaded  by  the  parasites  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human 
food  in  all  cases  where  the  parasites  are  not  removed  in  the  commercial 
preparations  of  the  parts  (intestines),  or  if  the  organ  in  all  of  its  portions 
contains  parasites,  or  their  presence  gives  to  the  organ  a  repulsive 
appearance.  If  the  parasites  are  confined,  or  invade  only  single  sections 
of  an  organ,  only  the  changed  parts  need  be  condemned. 

Parasites  of  the  Skin.— HYPODERMA  LARV.E. — The  larvae  of  the  Hypo- 
derma  boris  (CEstrus  bovis,  gad  fly)  and  of  Hypoderma  lineata  develop 
in  the  subcutis  of  cattle.  [Only  the  latter  is 'found  in  the  United  States.] 

Development. — The  gad  fly  deposits  its  sticky  eggs  on  the  skin  of  cattle, 
where  they  undergo  the  first  process  of  development,  and  are  brought  into 
the  mouth  through  licking.  Very  soon  (June),  according  to  Koorevaar,  trans- 
parent larvae,  2  to  4  mm.  long,  are  found  in  the  wall  of  the  esophagus,  from 
whence  they  migrate  partly  to  the  subcutis,  but  usually  toward  the  vertebral 
canal  (Hinrichsen,  Ruser,  Koorevaar),  in  order  to  develop  further  in  the  dural 
fat  tissue,  and  later  to  proceed  to  the  subcutis.  There  they  grow  until  the 
ninth  month  after  invasion  to  28  mm.  in  length  and  12  to  15  mm.  in  breadth. 
They  are  blackish-brown,  roller-shaped  larva?,  which  begin  in  April  to  migrate 
to  the  outside  by  breaking  through  the  skin,  in  order  that  they  may  change 
into  pupae  in  the  ground. 

Lesions. — "Warbles,"  or  "gad  boils/'  are  flat,  nodular  elevations 
of  the  skin,  especially  along  the  back,  from  which  larvae  covered  with 
pus  may  ,be  squeezed.  After  the  skin  is  removed,  dirty,  greenish- 
yellow,  suppurative  areas  are  found  in  the  subcutis,  with  edematous 
infiltration  of  the  surrounding  parts,  extending  even  into  the  muscles, 
which  may  also  be  found  invaded  by  dirty,  greenish  larval  passages. 

Judgment. — For  the  judgment  of  this  and  all  other  parasitic  diseases 
of  organs,  see  page  232. 

SCABIES  MITES. — Psoroptes  communis,  var.  onis  (sucking  mite,  Fig. 
86),  produces  the  skin  eruption  designated  as  sheep  scabies,  which 
affects  the  woolly  parts  of  the  body,  and  begins  generally  at  the  sacral 
region. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions.- — At  first  there  is  loosening  of  the  wool,  which 
extends  over  the  surface  of  the  body  in  various  places,  leaving  vesicles 
and  pustules  on  the  skin;  later  scabs  are  formed  with  matting  of  the 
wool,  thickening  of  the  skin,  formation  of  folds  and  fissures,  and  itch- 
ing, especially  when  warm.  In  extensive  affections,  emaciation,  anemia, 
and  cachexia  are  present. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES 


233 


Cases  of  psoroptic  scabies  of  sheep  and  horses,  as  well  as  sarcoptic  scabies 
of  horses,  must  be  reported  to  the  police  authorities,  according  to  the  Imperial 
law  on  Infectious  Diseases. 

[The  movement  of  cattle  and  sheep  affected  with  scabies  in  the 
United  States  is  restricted  by  the  existing  regulations  which  prohibit 
the  shipment  of  affected  and  exposed  animals  unless  they  are  destined  for 
immediate  slaughter. 1 


FIG.  86 


FIG   87 


Male  of  Psoroptes  communis, 
var.  ovis,  viewed  from  the  ab- 
dominal side.  X  50  diameters. 
(After  Ziegler.) 


Sar copies  scaliei,  var.  equi.  Above  to  the  left,  maie; 
below,  dorsal  view  of  female;  above  to  the  right,  female; 
below,  ventral  side  of  male.  X  75  diameters.  (After 
Hutyra  and  Marek.) 


Sarcoptes  scabiei,  var.  equi,  produces  scabies  of  horses.  The  disease 
begins  with  slight  granular  elevations  and  papules  on  the  thickly 
haired  protected  portions  of  the  skin,  and  as  it  progresses  leads  to 
serous  exudates,  scabs,  and  scab  formations.  In  advanced  cases  hair- 
less spots,  thickened  skin,  pustules  and  flat  swellings  may  develop; 
also  emaciation  may  appear.  Itching  is  generally  well  marked. 

Demodex  folliculorum,   var.  suis    (Demodex   phylloides) — the    hair- 
follicle  mite  of  hogs — produces  nodules  and  pustules  ranging  in  size 
from  a  milletseed  to  a  hazelnut.     This  not  infrequent  acne  eruption 
appears  on  the  snout,  neck,  pectoral  region,  abdomen,  the  inner  sur-  * 
face  of  the  thighs  and  flanks,  and  is  manifested  by  grayish  or  yellowish- 


2.S4  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

gray  pustules,  as  well  as  by  being  sharply  defined  from  the  neighboring 
parts  (Ostertag). 

Demodex  folliculorum,  var.  canis,  causes  the  demodex  mange,  which 
occurs  frequently  in  dogs,  where  it  invariable  appears  locally  on  the 
face,  the  pectoral  region,  and  on  the  paws,  but  it  may  also  extend  over 
the  entire  skin  and  result  in  emaciation.  The  red  and  bluish-red 
papules  and  pustules,  from  which  a  seropurulent  bloody  fluid  may  be 
squeezed,  are  the  characteristic  lesions. 

Sarcoptes  scabiei,  var.  canis,  produces  sarcoptic  mange,  frequently 
affecting  dogs.  It  appears  principally  on  the  head,  but  is  found  on 
other  parts  of  the  body;  it  is  also  manifested  as  red  spots,  later  by 
nodules  and  vesicles,  with  exudates  and  scab  formations,  loss  of  hair, 
and  emaciation  in  extensive  cases. 

The  other  forms  of  scabies  in  food  animals  are:  The  dermatocoptes  and 
dermatophagus  scabies  of  horses  and  cattle;  the  sarcoptes  and  dermatophagus 
scabies  in  sheep  and  goats  and  the  sarcoptes  scabies  of  hogs.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  dermatocoptes  scabies  of  the  horse,  they  are  of  no  importance  in 
meat  inspection  or  to  veterinary  police  supervision. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  16,  car- 
casses showing  advanced  lesions  of  scabies  associated  with  emaciation, 
or  if  the  inflammation  extends  to  the  flesh,  should  be  condemned.  In 
mild  cases  the  carcasses  are  passed  for  food.] 

Immense  numbers  of  lice  (hsematopines)  are  occasionally  found  on  calves, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  their  crawling  on  the  meat,  it  is  advisable  to  have  the 
skin  removed  immediately  after  slaughter. 

COCCIDIA. — Coccidium  fuscum,  which  was  discovered  by  Olt,  is  the 
cause  of  coccidiosis  cutis,  spiradenitis  coccidiosa,  in  the  granular  erup- 
tions of  hogs.  These  protozoa,  the  classification  of  which  as  coccidia  is 
disputed  by  Liihe,  penetrate  into  the  sweat  glands  and  produce  chronic 
inflammation  in  the  glands  by  a  damming  up  of  the  secretion. 

Lesions :-  On  various  parts  of  the  skin,  pale,  bluish-gray,  lead-gray, 
or  yellowish-brown  nodules  develop,  ranging  in  size  from  a  pin's  head  to 
a  bean.  They  are  semisolid,  lying  very  superficially  in  the  skin,  and 
contain  a  cloudy,  watery  or  bloody,  smeary  mass,  and  sometimes 
rolled-up  hair. 

No  disturbance  in  the  general  health  is  associated  with  this  eruption. 

Parasites  of  the  Respiratory  Apparatus. — (EsTRUS  LARVAE. — The  larvae 
of  the  gad  fly  of  sheep  (Oestrus  ovis)  invade  the  nose  and  sinuses  of  the 
sheep. 

Development. — The  fly  deposits  eggs  or  partially  developed  larvae  on  or 
into  the  openings  of  the  nose  of  sheep,  from  whence  they  migrate  into  the 
nasal,  frontal,  and  maxillary  sinuses  as  well  as  into  the  cones  of  the  horns. 
There  they  develop  within  nine  months  into  yellowish-brown  larva?,  20  to  30 
mm.  in  length.  They  are  expelled  to  the  outside  by  sneezing,  blowing,  or 
shaking  (shaking  disease),  and  burrow  into  the  ground,  where  they  change  into 
a  chrysalis  stage. 


PA  It  AM  TIC   />/,S'AMA7<;,S  235 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Catarrh  of  the  respective  mucous  mem- 
branes with  mucopurulent  nasal  discharges,  shaking  of  the  head, 
sneezing,  and  indications  of  brain  irritation  are  observed.  Swelling  of 
the  mucous  membrane  occurs  with  hemorrhages,  and  there  is  a  loss 
of  weight.  Finally,  the  presence  of  larvae  enveloped  in  pus  and  mucus, 
which  may  be  fetid,  is  noted. 

PENTASTOMES. — Linguatula  rhinaria  (Pentastomum  tcenioides),  which  resem- 
bles the  tapeworm,  infests  the  nasal  cavities  and  sinuses  of  dogs  and  men 
and  produces  only  slight  catarrhal  disturbances.  These  parasites,  which  belong 
to  the  arachnoidae,  are  15  to  20  mm.  long  (male),  and  80  to  90  mm.  long  (female). 

For  the  veterinary  inspector  the  only  parasite  of  importance  on  account  of 
its  larval  condition  is  the  Pentastomum  denticulatum.  This  develops  from  the 
eggs  of  the  Linguatula  rhinaria,  which  reach  the  outside  with  the  nasal  mucus, 
and  are  then  taken  up  by  herbivorous  animals.  There  the  embryos  are  set 
free  in  the  digestive  apparatus,  and  reach  either  actively  or  passively  the 
mesenteric  glands,  liver,  lungs,  or  peritoneum,  where  they  become  encapsulated 
and  form  cysts. 

PARASITES  OF  THE  LUNGS. — Metastrongylus  apri  (Strongylus  para- 
do.rus):  This  strange  palisade  worm  occurs  very  frequently  in  the 
lungs  of  both  domesticated  and  wild  hogs,  but  according  to  Muller 
only  in  young  animals.  The  males  are  16  to  20  mm.  and  the  females 
40  mm.  long,  and  they  live  in  the  trachea  and  bronchi,  where  they 
produce  only  slight  catarrhal  disturbances.  Lungs  affected  at  the 
places  invaded  by  a  large  number  of  these  worms  have  elevated,  flat, 
dense  areas,  with  a  mother-of-pearl  luster. 

As  the  latter  indications  may  be  absent  in  spite  of  the  presence  of  the  para- 
sites, it  is  advisable  to  cut  into  every  hog  lung  posteriorly.  If  worms  can 
be  squeezed  out  of  the  cut  surface,  another  cut  is  then  made  a  few  centimeters 
anteriorly,  and  if  parasites  are  also  found  there,  the  centre  of  the  lung  may 
then  be  considered  infested. 

Dictyocaulus  filaria  (Strongylus  filaria),  the  thread  worm  of  the 
lung,  lives  in  the  bronchi  of  sheep,  goats,  deer,  and  roe,  where  it  pro- 
duces catarrh  and  pneumonia.  In  sheep  it  occasionally  occurs  in 
such  immense  numbers  and  extensiveness  that  entire  flocks  become 
infested  with  it,  and  a  large  number  of  sheep  succumb  from  pneu- 
monia and  cachexia  (lung-worm  plague).  The  findings  resemble  those 
for  Metastrongylus  apri.  The  males  are  25  and  the  females  84  mm.  long. 

Synthetocaulus  rufescens  (Strongylus  ovis  pulmonalis,  lung  hair  worm) 
and  other  species  of  this  genus,  10  to  30  mm.  long,  live  as  reddish- 
brown  parasites  in  sheep,  goats,  deer,  and  chamois.  They  produce 
in  the  lungs,  small  yellowish  or  greenish-gray  hard  nodules  or  wedge- 
shaped  areas.  In  cutting  into  these  places,  caseous,  gray,  crumbling 
masses  are  found,  which  contain  eggs,  embryos,  and  dead  parasites. 

Dictyocaulus  mviparus  (Strongylus  micrurus)  is  found  comparatively 
seldom  in  the  lungs  of  cattle  and  calves.  It  also  occurs  in  deer  and  roe. 
The  males  are  30  to  40  mm.  long  and  the  females  60  to  80  mm.  long. 
They  are  recognized  through  the  mother-of-pearl  luster  of  the  hard 


230 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


lobuli,  and  occur  preferably  at  the  base  of  the  lung,  where  the  para- 
sites are  lodged  in  the  dilated  bronchi.  Occasionally,  dead  parasites 
may  be  found  in  greenish-colored  nodules  (Ostertag). 

Synthetocaulus  commutatus  (Strongylus  commutatus)  occurs  in  the 
lungs  of  hares  and  rabbits.  The  worm  is  30  to  70  mm.  long  and  pro- 
duces in  the  lung  tissue  proper  inflammatory  areas  varying  in  size  from 
a  hempseed  to  a  hazelnut.  These  areas  have  a  yellow  caseous  content. 
Occasionally  the  parasite  produces  enzootic  losses  in  rabbits. 

According  to  Schlegel,  the  Strongylus  commutatus  is  comparatively  frequent 
in  sheep,  and  is  also  the  most  harmful  lung  worm  of  this  species.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  present  always  in  the  dark  brown  to  black  or  violet-red  nodules  of  the 
lungs  of  sheep. 

Parasites  of  the  Digestive  Apparatus.— GASTRUS  LARVAE. — The  larvae 
of  Gastrophilus  equi,  the  stomach  bot  of  the  horse,  are  18  to  20  mm. 
long,  roll-shaped,  yellowish  or  flesh-colored  bodies,  which  live  on  the 
cardiac  portion  of  the  mucosa  of  the  horse's  stomach.  Occasionally 
they  also  occur  in  the  dog  (Fig.  88). 

FIG.  88 


Gastrophilus  equi:  a,  male  fly;  b,  larva.     (After  Ziegler.) 

The  gad  fly  lays  eggs  1  mm.  long  on  the  hair  of  the  horse.  After  three  to 
five  days  the  worms  slip  out  of  the  eggs  and  they  are  then  licked  off.  In  this 
way  they  reach  the  stomach,  burrow  into  the  mucous  membrane,  and  are 
developed  after  nine  to  ten  months  into  full-grown  larvae,  which  are  ejected 
with  the  feces. 

The  larvae  of  the  Gastrophilus  hcemorrhoidalis  of  the  horse  are  more  slender 
than  the  former,  and  of  a  lighter  red  color. 

Larva3  of  the  Gastrophilus  duodenalis  occur  in  the  pyloric  portion  of  the 
stomach  of  the  horse.  They  are  whitish  yellow  in  color,  and  measure  13  to 
15  mm.  in  length. 

ROUND  WORMS. —  Hoemonchus  contortus  (Strongylus  contortus),  the 
contorted  palisade  worm,  lives  in  the  abomasum  of  sheep  and  goats  and 
occasionally  in  young  cattle.  The  reddish- white  worms  are  16  to  20 
mm.  long.  The  blood-sucking  parasite  produces  anemia  and  cachexia 
through  heavy  infestations.  If  they  appear  extensively  in  a  flock  of 
sheep,  it  is  spoken  of  as  stomach-worm  epizootic  of  sheep. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  237 

Oslertagia  ostertagi  (Strongylus  ostertagi,  Strongylus  convolutus),  con- 
glomerated palisade  worm,  lives  frequently  in  the  abomasum  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats.  They  are  7  to  13  mm.  long.  The  presence  of  these 
worms,  which  lie  under  the  epithelia  of  the  mucous  membranes,  is 
indicated  by  round  elevated  spots  the  size  of  lentils,  with  a  central 
opening.  Extensive  infestation  with  these  parasites  may  result  in 
emaciation. 

Ostertagia  ostertagi  (Strongylus  convolutus),  as  well  as  various  other  strongy- 
lidse,  according  to  Schnyder,  is  the  cause  of  a  chronic  diarrhea  in  cattle  in 
Switzerland,  designated  as  " Kalkbrandigkeit,"  or  "lime  burn." 

Strongylus  rubidus  was  the  cause  of  a  severe  affection  in  hogs,  observed  by 
Oppermann,  consisting  of  a  diphtheritic  or  chronic  inflammatory  affection  of 
the  gastric  mucous  membrane,  which  resulted  in  severe  anemia  to  the  sucking 
mother  pig. 

Trichuris  ovis  (Trichocephalus  affinis),  which  generally  occurs  only  in  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats,  was  found  by  Meyer  in  large  masses  in  the  large  intestines 
of  a  hog.  Trichocephalus  crenatus  was  also  found  by  Haase  (Heine). 

Oxyuris  curvula  and  Oxyuris  mastigodes  occur  in  the  large  intestines  of  the 
horse,  according  to  Jerke. 

Strongylus  vulgaris,  S.  edentatus,  S.  equinus,  formerly  known  as  Strongylus 
armatus,  inhabit  the  large  intestines  of  horses,  and  embryos  of  S.  vulgaris 
produce  aneurysms  of  the  abdominal  bloodvessels. 

Spiroptera  sanguinolenta,  blood-sucking,  coiled-tail  parasite,  lives  in  minute 
cavities  under  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  esophagus  and  stomach  of  dogs. 

Ascaris  equorum  (A.  megalocephala),  the  large-headed  stomach  worm,  is 
most  frequently  found  in  the  small  intestines  of  horses. 

Ascaris  suum  (A.  lumbricoides)  is  frequently  found  in  hogs.  Heavy  infesta- 
tions of  ascarides  in  the  intestines  of  calves  and  sheep  cause  an  abnormally 
stale,  sourish  odor  and  flavor  of  the  meat  (Morat,  Laubion,  Leibender,  Vallis- 
nieri,  Mathis). 

Larva3  of  (Esophagostomum  radiatum  and  (Esoph.  columbianum,  which  infest 
the  small  intestine  and  cecum  of  European  cattle  and  sheep,  are,  according 
to  Scheben,  the  cause  of  helminthiasis  nodularis  intestinalis,  also  called  nodular 
disease  of  the  intestines.  In  the  intestines  of  American  cattle  and  of  American 
and  Australian  sheep,  the  (Esoph.  radiatum  and  (Esophagostomum  columbianum 
are  present  as  the  cause  of  the  formation  of  intestinal  nodules. 

Gnathostoma  hispidum  (Cheiracannthus  hispidus),  the  three-colored  stomach 
worm,  lives  on  the  blood  from  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  of  hogs. 
This  parasite,  which  is  2  to  3  cm.  long,  has  a  spherical  head  which  is  separated 
by  a  deep  furrow  from  the  remainder  of  the  body. 

Gigantorhynchus  hirudinaceus  (Echinorynchus  gigas},  the  giant  worm,  is 
from  7  to  9  cm.  (males),  and  30  to  40  cm.  (females)  long,  and  inhabits  the 
small  intestine  of  hogs.  At  the  point  of  attachment  it  produces  a  circum- 
scribed inflammatory  nodule  and  small  abscesses  which  may  then  be  easily 
mistaken  for  a  tuberculous  nodule. 

For  the  discussion  of  trichinae  in  the  intestines,  see  page  254. 

FLAT  WORMS. —  Tcenia  (Moniezia)  expansa  produces  the  most  im- 
portant and  frequent  tapeworm  disease  of  sheep,  and  in  young  animals 
causes  emaciation,  diarrhea,  cachectic  anemia,  followed  by  death.  It 
also  occurs  in  cattle,  and  is  from  2  to  6  mm.  in  length. 

Various  distinct  species  have  recently  been  separated  from  the  principal 
species,  Tcenia  expansa.  The  cysticercus  stage  of  this  parasite  probably  lives 
in  the  so-called  sheep  tick  (Melophagus  ovinus). 


238 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


Of  the  other  flat  worms  found  in  food-producing  animals  the  following  may 
be  mentioned: 

Cittotcenia  denticulata  of  rabbits,  cysticercus  unknown,  25  to  80  cm.,  some- 
times 150  cm.  long. 

Anoplocephala  perfoliata  of  horses,  3  to  5  cm.  long. 

Anoplocephala  plicata  of  horses,  10  to  25  cm.  long. 

Anoplocephala  mammillana  of  horses,  1  to  3  cm.  long. 

In  dogs  are  found : 

T.  hydatigena  (T.  marginata),  1|  to  2  m.  long,  which  is  the  adult  of  Cysti- 
cercus tenuicollis  of  sheep,  hogs,  and  cattle. 

T.  pisiformis  (T.  serrata),  \  to  1  m.  long,  which  is  the  adult  of  Cysticercus 
pisiformis  of  hares. 

T.  coenurus  (Multiceps  multiceps) ,  40  to  60  cm.  long,  which  is  the  adult  of 
Coenurus  cerebralis  of  sheep. 

Dipylidium  caninum   (T.   cucumerina),   10  to  .       FIG.  91 

40  cm.  long.  Its  cysticercus  stage  is  in  the  dog 
louse  (Trichodectus  canis  latus)  and  in  the  dog 
flea  (Pulex  serraticeps) . 

T.  echinococcus,  3  to  4  mm.  long,  which  has  its 
origin  from  either  the  Echinococcus  unilocularis 
or  E.  multilocularis  (page  244)  of  ruminants  and 
hogs  (Fig.  89). 


FIG.  89 


FIG.  90 


Full-grown  Tcenia  echino- 
coccus. X  12  diameters. 
(After  Ziegler.) 


Head  of  the  Dibothrio- 
cephalus  latus  (Bremser), 
enlarged.  (After  Heller.) 


Fasciola  hepatica,  with  male 
and  female  sexual  organs.  X  3.2 
diameters.  (After  Lcuckart.) 


Dibothriocephalus  latus  (Bothriocephalus  latus},  the  larval  stages  of  which 
are  found  in  the  muscles  of  pike,  perch,  eel,  pout,  grayling,  and  trout  (Fig.  90). 

Recent  investigations  (Vaullegeard)  appear  to  establish  the  fact  that  heavy 
parasitic  infestations  occasion  the  production  of  toxin-like  poisonous  products 
in  the  intestines. 

FLUKES. — Fasciola  hepatica  (Distomum  hepaticum),  the  large  distoma, 
occurs  in  the  bile  ducts  of  the  liver  of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  hogs  (very 
rarely),  and  deer.  Distoma  or  their  remains  are  occasionally  found  in 
the  lungs,  spleen,  heart,  subcutis,  muscles,  and  beneath  the  serous 
membranes. 


PARAS1  TIC  DISEAHKS 

This  leaf-shaped  worm  is  20  to  40  mm.  long  and  12  to  15  mm.  broad 
at  its  widest  portion.  Its  color  is  muddy  yellow  to  greenish  brown. 
It  has  an  oral  and  ventral  sucker  and  its  cuticula  bears  scale-like  thorns 
(Fig.  91). 

The  invasion  of  the  distoma  occurs  in  the  larval  state  (Cercaria).  The 
parasite  develops  in  small  water  snails  (Limnoeus  minutus  and  L.  pereger] 
and  is  ingested  with  food  or  water.  In  the  intestines  the  Cercaria  burst  their 
cyst  wall  and  wander  through  the  ductus  choledochus  into  the  liver;  some 
may  also  reach  this  destination  by  penetrating  an  intestinal  vein  and  entering 
the  portal  circulation.  They  develop  in  the  bile  ducts  of  the  liver,  become 
sexually  mature,  and  with  the  bile  enter  the  intestinal  canal,  to  be  discharged 
with  the  feces. 

The  lesions  in  the  liver  depend  on  the  intensity  and  duration  of 
invasion.  If  the  latter  is  recent  (three  weeks)  and  heavy,  symptoms 
of  acute  inflammation  of  the  liver  may  be  observed.  Occasionally 
hemorrhages  of  the  liver  also  occur.  Later,  changes  are  found  in  the 
bile  ducts  ranging  from  simple  catarrh  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  bile  ducts  to  a  chronic  hyperplastic  inflammation  of  their  walls 
with  considerable  hypertrophy  and  calcareous  incrustations.  Either 
synchronously  or  later  a  chronic  interstitial  hepatitis  with  indurations 
and  contractions  (hypertrophic  cirrhosis  of  the  liver)  may  develop. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  liver  tissue  itself  remains  unchanged. 
Occasionally,  suppurative  cysts,  in  which  living  or  dead  flukes  reside, 
are  found  in  the  parenchyma  of  the  liver  communicating  with  the  bile 
ducts. 

Jaeger  attributes  the  action  of  the  distomes  on  the  tissue  of  the  liver  to 
their  toxic  products  of  metabolism. 

Invasion  by  the  liver  fluke  does  not  visibly  disturb  the  general 
condition  of  other  animals,  but  in  the  sheep,  when  the  disease  is  severe 
and  extensive  (liver  fluke  pest  or  rot),  it,  as  a  rule,  occasions  serious 
losses  by  producing  digestive  disturbances,  icterus,  anemia,  and  cachexia. 

Examination. — These  flukes  are  found  by  expression  of  the  bile 
ducts  after  incisions  into  the  liver,  so  as  to  strike  the  main  ducts;  for 
instance,  on  the  stomach  surface  of  the  liver  of  cattle,  to  the  left  of  the 
portal  canal  and  at  the  base  of  the  Lobus  Spigelii. 

Dicroccelium  lanceatum  (Distomum  lanceolatum) ,  the  lancet-shaped 
fluke,  is  most  common  in  the  liver  of  sheep,  rarer  in  cattle,  hogs,  rabbits, 
hares,  and  also  in  man. 

The  worm  attains  a  length  of  only  4  to  9  mm.,  and  a  width  of  1  to  2.5 
mm.  (Fig.  92).  Its  anterior  portion  is  quite  motile,  and  stained  black 
in  parts.  The  mode  of  invasion  resembles  that  of  Distomum  hepaticum. 

This  liver  fluke  may  also  infest  whole  herds  and  produce  numerous 
deaths,  as  Roemer  observed  in  goats. 

Findings  and  Examination. — The  parasite  occasions  only  slight  catar- 
rhal  changes  in  the  bile  ducts,  and  its  presence  is  frequently  not  dis- 
cernible at  the  surface  of  the  liver.  They  are,  therefore,  found  only 


240 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


on  incision  of  the  bile  ducts,  where  they  are  frequently  present  in  large 
numbers. 

Judgment. — The  judgment  of  distomatosis  depends  on  the  number  of 
flukes  and  the  probable  changes  in  the  liver.  If  the  latter  are  absent,  or 
restricted  to  the  large  bile  ducts  and  the  distomes  are  confined  to  these, 
they  may  be  entirely  removed  by  careful  dissection  of  the  bile  ducts  and 
the  remaining  tissue  of  the  liver  utilized.  If,  however,  the  flukes  are 
also  present  in  the  smaller  bile  passages,  or  if  severe  indurative  or 
suppurative  processes  are  present,  the  whole  organ  is  confiscated  and 
destroyed. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  23,  if  the 
liver  shows  an  infestation  with  flukes  it  should  be  condemned.! 


FIG.  92 


Dicroccelium  Janceatum:  s',  oral  sucker 
and  entrance  to  the  fork-shaped  intestine; 
s",  ventral  sucker;  h,  testicle  with  vasa 
deferentia;  c,  cirrus;  u,  uterus;  o,  ovarium; 
shell  I,  canal  of  Laurer  and  yolk  gland;  d, 
glands;  w,  excretory  vessel;  g,  ganglion. 
X  8  diameters.  (After  Hertwig.) 


Paramphistomum  cervi  is  a  reddish- white 
fluke,  the  shape  of  a  ten-pin  (Endloch).  It 
is  from  4  to  12  mm.  long,  1  to  3  mm. 
thick,  and  is  found  on  the  mucosa  of  the 
first  and  second  stomachs  of  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  deer,  and  buffalo.  It  is  rare  in  Ger- 
many and  of  no  importance  whatever. 

PROTOZOA — Coccidium  zurnii  is  of  interest, 
as  it  causes  the  red  diarrhea  of  cattle 
(dysenteria  hsemorrhagica  coccidiosa,  Hess). 

FIG.  93 


Coccidia  in  the  various  stages  of  development, 
from  the  bile  duct  of  a  rabbit's  liver:  a,  6,  small 
granular,  young  forms;  c,  d,  larger  forms  with  dark- 
stained  border  granules;  e,  f,  0.  A,  oval,  encapsulated 
forms,  the  protoplasma  of  which  fills  up  a  portion 
of  the  capsule.  X  400  diameters.  (After  Ziegler.) 


The  oval  or  spherical  unicellular  coccidia  belong  to  the  Sporozoa  and  inhabit 
the  epithelium  of  the  intestinal  mucosa,  producing  severe  inflammatory  pro- 
cesses. 

The  symptoms  in  the  living  animal  may  be  summarized  as  a  usually  acute 
diarrhea,  mixed  with  blood  and  accompanied  by  a  general  febrile  condition. 
In  the  slaughtered  animal  severe  inflammation  of  the  intestines  is  found  with 
blood-red  intestinal  contents. 

Judgment. — In  the  judgment  of  such  cattle  the  meat  cannot  be  considered  as 
dangerous  to  health,  yet  on  account  of  the  existing  severe  general  disturbance 
its  value  is  impaired.  In  very  severe  cases  where  the  animals  are  greatly  ema- 
ciated, the  meat  is  sometimes  unfit  for  human  food. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  241 

The  Coccidiutn  ov  if  or  me  (Eimeria  stiedoe),  Fig.  93,  inhabits  the  epithelium  of 
the  bile  ducts  of  the  rabbit  liver,  and  produces  abscess-like  nodules  and  cysts. 

Coccidium  perforans,  which  is  also  parasitic  in  the  intestinal  epithelia  of 
rabbits,  produces  profuse  diarrhea.  It  is  said  to  occur  also  in  the  intestinal 
epithelia  of  sheep  and  calves. 

Coccidium  fuscum  occasions  the  shot-like  skin  eruptions  (Schrotausschlag) 
of  the  hog. 

Parasites  of  the  Pleura  and  Peritoneum. — Cysticercus  tenuicollis. 
—The  slender-necked  bladder  worm  is  a  frequent  parasite  of  hogs 
and  ruminants,  particularly  of  sheep.  It  is  often  found  on  and  beneath 
the  serous  membranes,  especially  of  the  omentum,  mesentery,  and 
liver  in  the  form  of  flabby  bladders,  or  vesicles,  rilled  with  serous  fluid, 
ranging  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  man's  fist.  Occasionally,  the  Cysticercus 
tenuicollis  has  been  encountered  in  the  lung  tissue  of  the  hog.  In  a 
fully  grown  state  the  bladders  are  joined  by  a  long,  thin  neck,  to  a 
scolex,  from  which  the  Tcenia  marginata  of  the  dog  develops,  after  a 
change  of  host.  The  scolex  contains  four  suckers  and  a  double  crown 
of  32  to  40  hooks. 

Extensive  peritonitis  is  sometimes  produced  in  hogs  in  cases  of 
heavy  invasion  of  the  parasites  beneath  the  folds  of  the  abdominal 
serosa,  resulting  in  extensive  adhesions  of  the  abdominal  organs.  The 
dead  cysticerci  may  be  found  in  large  numbers  among  the  peritoneal 
folds  as  spherical,  nodular,  or  more  flattened  formations,  ranging  in  size 
from  milletseeds  to  hazel  nuts,  and  composed  of  whitish  to  yellowish- 
brown  caseous  material  with  a  membranoid  envelope  (the  thickened 
serosa) . 

The  nature  of  the  nodules,  as  a  rule,  is  easily  ascertained  macro- 
scopically  by  making  smears  of  the  contents  of  the  larger  and  softer 
caseous  nodules,  which  should  contain  portions  of  the  cysticercus 
membrane,  and  microscopically  by  the  presence  of  hooks  and  calcareous 
bodies. 

The  calcareous  concrements  occasionally  encountered  in  the  muscula- 
ture of  sheep  may  be  produced  by  the  invasion  of  slender-necked  cysti- 
cerci, according  to  Glage. 

Relatively  young  animals  may  harbor  the  parasite,  as  the  development  of 
the  thin-necked  bladder  worm  from  the  tapeworm  ova  occurs  within  five  to  six 
weeks.  At  this  stage  they  lie,  as  a  rule,  beneath  the  serous  membrane.  In 
further  development  the  bladder  worms  increase  the  protrusion  of  the  serosa 
more  and  more,  but  always  remain  covered  by  it.  In  young  animals  which 
have  recently  ingested  numerous  tapeworm  ova,  serpentine  paths  in  the  liver 
are  occasionally  encountered.  These  are  filled  with  dark  red,  brownish,  or 
greenish  masses,  and  indicate  the  course  traversed  by  the  bladder-worm  embryos. 
Should  the  parasites  remain  in  the  interior  of  the  organs,  especially  the  liver, 
they  barely  attain  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  rapidly  undergo  cheesy  and  calcareous 
degeneration. 

Differential    Diagnosis. — The  slender-necked   bladder  worms  never 
occur  between  the  muscle  fibers  as  matured  parasites,  but  they  have, 
nevertheless,  been  confounded  with  true  measles,  when  found  as  pea- 
16 


242  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

sized  vesicles  in  places  where  the  serosa  lies  directly  in  contact  with 
the  musculature  (diaphragm,  pillars  of-  the  diaphragm,  abdominal, 
intercostal,  and  sternal  muscles).  Such  errors  do  not  occur  when  exami- 
nation is  made  of 

1.  The  favorite  site  of  true  measles  (C.  celluloses  or  C.  bovis),  where 
the  thin-necked  measles  never  occur  (tongue,  larynx,  heart  muscula- 
ture).   If  no  measles  are  found  there  it  is  improbable  that  the  doubtful 
structure  is  a  true  measle. 

2.  The  scolex  of  the  doubtful  bladder  worms  under  the  microscope, 
carefully  noting  the  number  and  shape  of  the  hooks. 

To  avoid  mistaking  the  caseous  or  calcified  thin-necked  bladder 
worms  for  tuberculous  areas,  it  is  essential  to  bear  in  mind  the  character- 
istic structure  of  the  latter,  and  to  ascertain  the  absence  of  infection 
of  the  lymphatic  glands  of  the  organ  under  consideration. 

Cysticercus  pisiformis. — The  pea-shaped  bladder  worm  (the  larval  stage 
of  the  Tcenia  pisiformis  (T.  serrata)  of  the  clog)  is  quite  common  in  the  lungs 
and  liver,  and  especially  prevalent  in  the  serous  lining  of  the  thoracic  and 
abdominal  cavities  of  rabbits  and  hares.  Sometimes  the  infestation  occurs 
epizootically,  and  it  is  then  spoken  of  as  rabbit  venery;  and  in  some  cases 
it  is  at  times  held  to  be  tuberculosis,  as  caseation  and  calcification  of  the  cysts 
occur  within  the  organs. 

On  echinococci  of  serous  membranes,  see  page  244. 

OTHER  PARASITES. — Filaria  equina,  a  round  worm  6  to  15  cm.  long,  has  been 
found  free  in  the  abdominal  cavity  of  horses;  and  Strongylus  armatus  (Kitt) 
has  been  found  in  the  same  animal.  Migrating  liver  flukes  may  also  find  their 
way  into  the  serous  cavities  and  become  attached  to  serous  membranes. 

Parasites  in  the  Brain. — Coenurus  cerebralis  (Multiceps  mulliceps). — 
Cerebral  bladder-worm  cysts,  filled  with  serous  fluid,  varying  in  size 
from  a  pea  to  a  hen's  egg,  occur  in  the  brains  of  sheep,  more  rarely 
in  cattle,  and  produce  the  so-called  gid,  or  staggers. 

Large  numbers  of  milletseed-sized  whitish  granules  are  situated  on  the 
inner  wall  of  the  cysts.  These  are  the  scolices,  from  which  the  Tcenia  ccenurus 
of  the  dog  is  developed. 

The  development  of  ccenurus  cysts  occupies  two  to  two  and  one-half  months. 
The  embryos,  which  have  been  set  free  from  the  ova  in  the  digestive  tract, 
are  largely  disseminated  embolically.  As  early  as  eight  to  fourteen  days  after 
invasion  bluish- white  cysts  are  found  on  the  surface  of  the  brain.  They  have 
a  diameter  of  1  to  3  mm.,  and  show  sulphur-yellow  streaks.  Similar  streaks, 
indicating  the  path  of  the  wandering  onchospheres,  may  be  also  found  in  other 
organs,  in  which  there  are  later  observed  spherical,  encapsulated  areas  with 
greenish  pus-like  contents  (cestodal  tuberculosis,  pseudotuberculosis  verminosa) . 
These  areas  are  transformed  by  calcification  into  fibrous,  calciform  nodules 
(chalicosis  nodularis). 

Occasionally,  ccenurus  cysts  (C.  serialis)  are  seen  in  the  abdominal  cavity 
and  muscles  of  hares  and  rabbits. 

Other  parasites  occurring  in  the  central  nervous  system,  such  as  Cyxliccrcu* 
cellulose?  and  CEstrus  larvce,  are  mentioned  elsewhere. 

For  the  judgment  of  parasitic  organ  affections,  sec  page  232. 

Parasitic  General  Diseases.  —  Peniaxionnnu  deuiiculaiurn.  -  The 
denticulate  pentastome  is  the  larval  stage  of  the  tapeworm-like 


PLATE    III 


FIG.    1 


Section    of  a    Mesenterie    Lymph    Gland   of  a   Cow 
with    Pentastome    Foci. 


FIG.  2 


Section    of  a   Tuberculous    Bronchial    Lymph    Gland 
from   a   Cow. 


1'ARASITIC  DltiEAXKS  243 

five-mouth  parasite .  (Pentastomum  s.  Linguatula  rhinaria),  considered 
under  parasites  of  the  respiratory  system  (page  235).  It  inhabits  the 
intestines,  lymphatic  glands,  and  the  under  surface  of  the  serous  mem- 
branes of  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  hogs,  deer,  rabbit,  and  hare. 

Development. — The  young  larvae  escape  from  the  ova  ingested  into  the 
intestinal  tract  with  food,  pierce  the  intestinal  wall,  and  enter  the  various 
organs  actively  or  embolically.  They  are  most  common  in  the  liver,  mesenteric, 
inguinal  and  iliac  lymphatic  glands,  but  are  also  found  in  the  lung,  spleen,  pleura, 
and  peritoneum.  They  become  encysted,  undergo  various  changes,  and  six 
to  seven  months  after  invasion  the  mature  larva,  P.  denticulatum,  is  found. 
It  either  dies  or  wanders  actively  through  the  peritoneal  or  pleural  cavities 
into  the  intestines  or  bronchi,  in  order  to  reach  the  beginning  of  the  respiratory 
apparatus,  and  thus  escape. 

The  larval  invasion  and  its  results  produce  milletseed-sized  white 
nodules,  which  lead  to  the  suspicion  of  tuberculosis.    In  the  lymphatic 
glands,  especially  on  the  periphery, 
irregular,  milletseed  to  hazelnut-sized  FlG-  94 

areas  of  yellowish  or  greenish-gray 
color  are  formed  (Plate  III,  Fig.  1). 
The  parasites  occur  within  this  caseous 
or  mortar-like  substance  as  whitish, 
flat  larvae,  6  to  8  mm.  long,  an  anterior 
width  of  1.2  to  2  mm.  and  narrower 
posteriorly.  The  segmented  body, 
covered  with  tooth-like  thorns,  is  sup- 
plied with  two  pairs  of  hooks  on  either 
side  of  the  mouth  (Fig.  94).  The 
latter  are  permanent  and  may  be  dem-  Head  of  Pentastomum  denticulatum.  x  40 

OUStrated     microscopically     when   the  diameters.     (According  to  Ziegler.) 

pentastoma  larvae  die  and  decompose. 

Recognition  or  Identification  and  False  Interpretation. — The  recog- 
nition of  the  larval  site  is  not  difficult  if  the  places  in  question  and  the 
lymphatic  glands  are  cut  open.  They  may  be  mistaken  for  tuberculous 
areas  unless  it  is  remembered  that : 

1.  Tuberculous  areas  do  not  occur  in  the  peripheral    zone  of  the 
lymphatic  glands  only,  but  also  in  their  interior. 

2.  Tuberculous  areas  caseate  from  the  centre  and  are  surrounded  by 
a  gray  peripheral  layer,  whereas  pentastomum  areas  possess  a  uniform 
caseous  consistence. 

3.  Caseous  tuberculous  areas  are  yellow,   while  caseated  pentasto- 
mum areas  give  a  greenish  color  (Plate  III,  Fig.  1). 

4.  In  beginning  calcification,  tuberculous  areas  retain  their  yellow 
color;  the  pentastomum  areas  on  the  contrary  turn  gray,  and 

5.  In  pentastomum  areas  the  larvae  or  their  hooks  are  easily  demon- 
strated. 

Judgment.-  Direct  transmission  of  the  pentastoma  larvae  to  man, 
through  eating  meat,  is  most  improbable.  The  portions  of  meat  show- 
ing a  heavy  infestation  with  P.  denticulatum  are  not  to  be  considered 


244      - 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


dangerous  to  health,  but  at  the  most  are  to  be  designated  as  greatly 
impaired  in  value.  Parts  or  organs  extensively  invaded  are  to  be 
removed  as  unfit  for  use,  while  isolated  areas  in  valuable  organs  (liver) 
may  be  excised. 

[In  the  United  States,  organs  infested  with  P.  denticulalum  are 
condemned.] 

The  indirect  harmfulness  of  the  pentastoma  larvae  for  man  is  shown 
by  its  relation  to  P.  t&nioides  of  man  and  dog;  and  for  this  reason 
special  care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  dogs  from  eating  organs 
infested  with  P.  denticulatum. 

Particularly  careful  examination  is  required  in  pentastomatosis  of 
body  lymph  glands  to  avoid  mistaking  it  for  tuberculosis. 


FIG.  95 


Wall  of  an  echinococcus  cyst  with  brood  capsules  and  scolices:  a,  chitin  membrane  (cuticula);  b, 
layer  of  parenchyma  with  cystic  cells;  c,  daughter  cysts;  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  scolices  in  various  stages  of  develop- 
ment. X  100  diameters.  (According  to  Ziegler). 

Echinococci. — Echinococci  are  bladder  worms  whose  scolices  are 
not  situated  immediately  or  directly  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  cyst 
walls,  but  they  are  surrounded  by  separate  capsules  (proligerous 
vesicles  or  daughter  cysts)  which  are  attached  to  the  enveloping 
membrane  by  a  pedicle,  or  they  exist  free  within  the  serous  fluid  which 
fills  the  cysts. 

Echinococci  (Echinococcus  polymorphus)  occur  in  all  animals  used  for 
slaughter;  most  commonly,  however,  in  sheep,  hogs,  and  cattle.  They 
form  the  asexual  stage  of  Tcenia  echinococcus,  the  three-segmented 
tapeworm  of  the  dog  (page  238),  and  occur  in  two  forms  as 

(a)  Echinococcus  polymorphus  s.  unilocularis  s.  simplex,  and 

(b)  Echinococcus  multilocularis  s.  alveolaris. 

Echinococci  develop  from  the  ova  or  onchospheres  of  the  Tcenia  echinococcus 
after  they  reach  the  alimentary  tract.  According  to  recent  observations  by 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  245 

Mangold,  Miiller,  von  Linstow,  Posselt,  this  taenia  exists  in  the  dog  in  two 
varieties,  which  externally,  however,  appear  very  similar.  The  dissemination 
of  the  embryos  from  the  intestines  is  mainly  through  the  portal  circulation. 
For  this  reason  the  liver  is  the  organ  most  commonly  infested  with  develop- 
ing echinococcus  cysts.  According  to  Leuckart  the  development  is  compara- 
tively slow.  White  nodules  of  about  1  millimeter  in  size  may  be  seen  four 
weeks  after  invasion,  and  after  four  more  weeks  the  cystic  nodules  have  only 
attained  a  size  of  1.5  to  2.5  mm.  with  a  central  cavity  containing  fluid.  Only 
at  the  age  of  five  months  have  they  attained  15  to  20  mm.  in  size,  and  the 
first  proligerous  or  daughter  cysts  with  scolices  are  then  formed. 

The  echinococci  degenerate  easily  and  undergo  caseation  or  calcifi- 
cation. The  initial  stage  of  this  degeneration  is  a  softening  and  fatty 
change  of  the  parenchyma  layer,  and  a  transformation  of  the  partly 
transudated  echinococcic  fluid  into  a  sticky  honey-like  mass.  In  sheep 
the  cyst  wall  may  become  cartilaginous,  or  it  may  even  calcify.  The 
scolices  of  the  echinococci  die  as  a  result  of  the  processes  of  degenera- 
tion. 

Echinococcus  polymorphus  s.  unilocularis  s.  simplex. — The  simple  echi- 
nococcus cyst  ranges  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  child's  head.  It  may  be 
transparent  or  opaque,  light  gray  to  pure  white,  and  may  appear  in 
all  animals  that  are  slaughtered,  especially  in  sheep,  hogs,  and  cattle. 
They  are  principally  found  in  the  liver  and  lung,  but  they  may  also 
be  present  in  all  other  organs  of  the  body,  even  in  the  heart,  bones, 
udder,  brain,  muscles.  Of  the  organs  infested  with  echinococci,  the 
liver  particularly  may  increase  enormously  in  size  and  weight. 

The  unilocular  echinococci  are  always  enclosed  by  a  connective- 
tissue  capsule  (organic  membrane  of  Ostertag),  which  results  from  the 
reaction  of  the  immediately  surrounding  structures,  and  separates 
the  parasite  from  the  neighboring  tissues  of  the  organ. 

FIG.  96 


Closed  and  ruptured  brood  capsules  with  scolices  in  connection  with  the  parenchymatous  layer 
of  the  cystic  wall.    X  40  diameters.    (According  to  Leuckart.) 

The  true  wall  of  the  echinococcic  cysts  is  composed  of  a  laminated  cuticula 
and  a  parenchymatous  layer  in  which  calcareous  bodies  may  be  found.  Should 
the  parenchymatous  layer  remain  smooth  upon  its  inner  surface  the  echinococcus 
will  contain  only  fluid,  and  is  then  called  E.  cysticus  sterilis;  this  is  the  most 
common  form  in  slaughter  animals.  If  proligerous  vesicles  (Fig.  96)  develop 
from  the  parenchymatous  layer,  the  E.  fertilis  is  formed;  this  form  is  found 
most  frequently  in  hogs  and  sheep.  A  formation  of  so-called  daughter  cysts, 
having  the  same  structure  as  the  mother  cyst,  may  develop  from  portions  of 


246  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

the  parenchymatous  layer  which  have  remained  between  the  layers  of  the 
cuticula  (M.  Braun).  Originating  in  the  substance  of  the  cuticle,  they  distend 
the  wall  of  the  mother  cyst,  either  outwardly  (E.  granulosus]  or  inwardly 
(E.  hydatidosus) .  In  the  latter  case  the  daughter  cysts  may  rupture  the  inner- 
most layers  of  the  wall  of  the  mother  cyst,  be  set  free,  and  fall  into  the  mother 
cyst.  The  early  growing  forms  of  the  echinococci,  according  to  Leuckart, 
appear  as  whitish  bodies  the  size  of  sago  seed,  which,  under  the  microscope, 
show  a  structureless  enveloping  membrane  of  granular  formation  within. 

Echinococcus  multilocularis  s.  alveolar  is. — The  many-chambered  hy- 
datid  occurs  as  a  tumor-like  growth  (Fig.  97)  in  the  liver  and  lungs, 
especially  in  cattle.  It  has  been  found  occasionally  in  the  spleen 
and  kidneys  and  other  organs  in  sheep,  also  in  hogs.  In  hogs  it 
occurs  in  a  form  differing  from  that  in  cattle,  and  is  more  like  the 
alveolar  echinococcus  found  in  man  (Ostertag).  The  multilocular 
echinococcus  is  composed  of  numerous  small  cysts  or  vesicles  em- 
bedded in  a  connective-tissue  network.  TJie  latter  is  delicate  and 
thin  in  small  echinococcus  cysts,  but  during  growth  attains  consider- 

FIG.  97 


Section  through  liver  of  cow  with  Echinococcus  multilocularis. 

able  thickness  in  the  large  forms.  According  to  size  and  age,  the 
individual , vesicles  of  the  multilocular  echinococci  are  either  soft  and 
elastic,  with  thin  walls  and  filled  with  serous  fluid,  or  gelatinous,  caseated, 
and  calcified.  The  centres  of  larger  echinococci  are  usually  of  the 
latter  consistence,  while  the  peripheral  layers  are  made  of  the  former. 
The  hydatid  grows  by  the  formation  of  new  daughter  cysts  from  the 
mother  cysts.  These  emerge  from  within,  are  freed  by  the  connective 
tissue,  and  themselves  form  mother  cysts,  which,  in  their  turn,  send 
out  daughter  cysts  toward  the  periphery. 

In  other  respects  the  single  vesicle  of  the  alveolar  echinococcus  is  similar 
to  the  structure  of  the  simple  echinococcus;  but,  according  to  v.  Linstow, 
E.  alveolaris  has  fewer  hooks  than  E.  cysticus  (26  as  compared  with  36).  They 
are  not  identical  biologically,  and  two  different  varieties  of  echinococcus  develop 
(see  page  238). 

The  alveolar  echinococcus  found  in  the  pleura  of  hogs  by  Ostertag  gave 
the  impression  of  a  miliary  pearl  disease.  The  numerous  milletseed-shaped 
nodules  were  grayish  yellow,  of  firm  consistence,  and  enclosed  fresh  and  caseated 
hydatids  containing  scolices. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  .        247 

The  recognition  of  echinococci  is  easy  after  they  become  visible 
on  the  surface  of  the  organs  and  if  they  have  not  degenerated.  When 
deeply  located  within  the  organs,  palpation  will  disclose  the  large 
cysts;  smaller  ones,  however,  can  only  be  discovered  by  section.  The 
alveolar  echiriococcus  and  caseated  or  calcified  simple  echinococci  may 
be  mistaken  for  tuberculosis  unless  it  is  noted  that  in  echinococcus 
disease: 

1.  The  lymph  glands  belonging  to  the  organ  are  free  of  the  infection. 

2.  In  the  caseous  or  calcareous  masses  are  contained  delicate  mem- 
branous remnants,  the  hull  or  enveloping  membrane  of  the  proligerous 
vesicles,  or  the  remnants  of  the  main  membrane  of  the  mother  cyst. 

3.  The  cuticula  of  the  echinococcus  wall  shows  microscopically  a 
banded  or  striped  structure  (Fig.  95). 

4.  The  caseated  or  calcified  contents  of  unilocular  cysts  are  easily 
removed  from  the  surrounding  smooth-walled  connective-tissue  capsule. 

Judgment. — In  the  judgment  of  echinococci  it  must  be  remembered 
that  they  are  not  transmissible  to  man  by  ingestion.  The  parasites 
themselves,  however,  are  objectionable  formations,  and  whenever 
found  in  small  numbers  in  any  organ,  they  should  be  carefully  excised, 
while  the  organ  infested  is  to  be  cut  in  layers.  When  present  in  great 
numbers  the  organ  becomes  unfit  for  food,  and  should  be  condemned. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  17,  Para- 
graph 3,  the  presence  of  an  organ  found  infested  with  echinococcus 
cysts  does  not  affect  the  wholesomeness  of  the  meat,  and  the  carcass 
may  be  passed  for  food  after  condemnation  of  the  infested  part  or 
organ.] 

The  importance  of  the  echinococcus  cyst  to  man  lies  in  the  easy  transmission 
of  the  ova  of  Tcenia  echinococcus  of  the  dog  to  man.  This  is  proved  by  the 
fact  that  echinococcus  disease  in  man  is  proportional  to  that  of  domestic  animals 
in  those  localities  in  which  the  animal  echinococci  are  not  carefully  removed, 
thus  allowing  dogs  to  gain  access  to  the  tissues  containing  echinococci.  The 
echinococcus  cysts  in  man  formed  from  the  Tcenia  echinococcus  of  the  dog  are 
developed  in  the  same  way  as  in  animals  and  in  almost  every  case  lead  to 
severe  disturbance  of  health  and  may  even  prove  fatal.  For  this  reason  the 
careful  removal  of  all  echinococci  through  meat  inspection  is  of  the  greatest 
sanitary  value  and  importance. 

Measles.  —The  true  measles  of  food-producing  animals  are  the  larval 
stages  of  two  varieties  of  tapeworms  in  man.  There  are  for  considera- 
tion, therefore,  two  corresponding  forms  of  measles: 

(a)  Cysticercus  celluloses,  the  pork  measle. 

(6)  Cysticercus  bovis,  the  beef  measle. 

The  transition  stage  of  a  third  tapeworm  of  man,  found  in  the  flesh 
of  fish,  namely,  that  of  Bothriocephalus  latus,  will  be  considered  in 
Chapter  X. 

The  larval  stages  of  the  Bothriocephalus  liguloides,  which  occur  in  man  in 
Japan,  according  to  Miyake,  need  not  be  considered  here.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  hydatids  of  Tcenia  krabbei,  which  Rusche  reported  in  reindeer  meat. 
The  tapeworm  in  question  is  parasitic  in  dogs.  The  hydatids  are  somewhat 
smaller  than  hog  measles,  their  scolex  having  26  to  39  hooks  of  various  sizes. 


248 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


FIG.  98 


Generalities  and  Development. — The  measles  develop  from  the  tape- 
worm eggs  which  have  gained  access  to  the  stomach  of  the  respective 
host  where  they  are  freed  from  their  covering.  Either  actively  or 
passively  the  developing  embryos  gain  access  to  all  parts  of  the  body, 
and  form  the  so-called  measles  in  the  connective  tissue  of  the  animal, 
especially  in  the  striated  musculature.  They  appear  as  round  or 
oval,  transparent,  colorless  to  grayish-white  vesicles,  ranging  in  size 
from  a  milletseed  to  a  double  pea,  and  are  filled  with  a  serous  fluid. 
An  invagination  of  the  cyst  wall,  the  site  of  the  future  tapeworm, 
shows  the  scolex  as  a  whitish  translucent  spot.  The  measles  are  sepa- 
rated from  the  surrounding  tissues  by  the  so-called  bladder  worm 
capsule,  a  delicate,  connective-tissue  membrane,  formed  by  the  reaction 
of  the  cellular  tissue.  In  microscopic  examination  of  a  cyst  whose 

scolex  has  been  extruded  by  gentle 
pressure  between  two  glass  plates,  four 
suckers  are  observed,  and  sometimes 
crowns  of  hooks  on  the  spherical  or  pear- 
shaped  head  (scolex).  In  the  so-called 
neck  numerous  calcareous  bodies  and  a 
cross-striation  pointing  to  the  future 
segments  are  found.  The  development 
of  measles  in  animals  follows  ingestion 
of  tapeworm  ova,  whose  onchospheres 
(embryos),  supplied  with  hooks,  are 
largely  carried  from  the  intestines  to  the 
widely  divergent  portions  of  the  body 
(connective  tissue  of  the  body)  by  the 
blood  stream.  The  measles,  especially 
those  of  cattle,  may  at  any  stage  of 
their  development  undergo  degeneration 
—hypertrophy  of  the  sac  surrounding 
the  measle,  coagulation  necrosis,  casea- 
tion,  suppuration,  calcification,  and  they 
usually  lose  their  capacity  for  further 
development,  which  is  decided  by  the 
If  the  latter  cannot  be  demonstrated,  or 
is  easily  crushed,  the  measles  are  no  doubt  dead.  The  viability  of 
measles  is  limited,  temperatures  of  45°  to  50°  C.  causing  them  to  die; 
a  strong  salt  solution  will  also  kill  them  in  a  short  while.  The  measles 
survive  the  death  of  their  host  for  several  weeks.  The  fact  that  meat 
is  spoiled  does  not  necessarily  mean  death  of  the  hydatids. 

Intrauterine  infection  of  the  fetus  with  embryos  of  measles,  as  some 
observations  from  practice  would  indicate,  is  not  yet  proved. 

Cysticercus  celluloses. — Measles  of  pork  is  the  asexual  transition  or 
larval  stage  of  the  hermit  tapeworm  ( Tcenia  solium)  of  man.  The 
bluish-white  cysts  of  pork  measles  and  the  surrounding  bladders  are 
very  thin;  through  them  the  invaginated  scolex  may  be  distinctly 
seen.  The  latter  has  four  suckers  and  a  rostellum  with  double  crown 
of  22  to  28  hooks  (Fig.  98),  which  are  absent  in  beef  measles. 


Scolex  of  the  hog  measle.     Squeeze  pre- 
paration.     X  50  diameters. 


intactness  of  the  scolex. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  249 

Occurrence — Situation. — Pork  measles  are  found  particularly  in  the 
connective  tissues  of  domestic  and  wild  hogs;  they  are  rarely  observed 
in  sheep,  goat,  dog,  bear,  cat,  deer,  buck,  monkey,  and  man.  The 
favorite  site  is  the  intermuscular  tissue  of  the  heart,  tongue,  larnyx, 
abdomen,  diaphragm,  flanks,  cheeks,  neck,  sternum,  intercostal  muscles, 
and  adductors  of  the  hind  legs.  When  infestation  is  heavy  they  may 
be  found  in  all  muscles  of  the  body,  in  the  panniculus  adiposus,  and 
in  the  brain;  very  rarely  in  the  lung  and  liver.  In  case  of  marked 
invasion,  the  musculature  is  aqueous  and  discolored  a  grayish  red. 
When  a  heavy  invasion  occurs  the  measles  may  be  recognized  beneath 
the  mucosa  of  the  tongue  in  the  living  animal. 

Frequency. — The  number  of  measly  hogs  has  been  decreasing  steadily  in 
Germany,  thanks  to  meat  inspection.  The  number  of  measly  hogs  is  in  general 
much  larger  in  East  Germany  than  in  the  west  and  south. 

According  to  the  government  meat-inspection  statistics  of  the  year  1904, 
measles  were  found  in  0.25  per  cent,  of  all  slaughtered  hogs  in  the  German 
Empire.  Infection  is  much  more  common  in  hogs  in  Russia  and  Austria- 
Hungary;  Prettner,  of  Prag,  found  measles  in  3.44  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  in 
Austria-Hungary. 

Careful  examination  of  the  favorite  sites  makes  the  detection  of 
measles  easy.  The  tongue  muscles  are  always  to  be  separated,  and 
the  heart  should  be  laid  open  with  a  cut  exposing  both  chambers  and 
dividing  wall.  In  doubtful  cases  a  microscopic  examination  should 
be  made.  This  will  determine  the  presence  or  absence  of  the  hooks, 
their  number,  etc.  The  hooks  remain  intact  even  in  caseous  or  calcified 
measles. 

To  avoid  error,  the  thin-necked  bladder  worm  (Cysticercus  tenuicollis), 
whose  characteristics  were  described  on  page  241,  must  be  borne  in 
mind.  From  a  differential  diagnostic  point  of  view,  the  following 
indications  are  especially  to  be  observed: 

1.  The  thin-necked  bladder  worm  is  never  situated  intermuscularly; 
if  present  it  will  be  found  on  muscles  covered  with  serous  membrane 
(abdominal,  diaphragmatic,  intercostal,  and  sternal  muscles). 

2.  In  the  isolated  specimen  of  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  attention  is 
called  to  the  thin  neck  and  the  presence  of  more  than  28  hooks  (32 
to  40)  on  the  scolex. 

3.  The  hooks  of  Cysticercus  tenuicollis  are  more  sickle-shaped  (Fig. 
100) ;  those  of  Cysticercus  celluloses  shaped  more  scythe-like.    Some  of  the 
smaller  hooks  of  the  former  possess,  in  addition,  a  cleft  or  bifurcated 
basal  process,  which  is  not  found  in  Cysticercus  celluloses  (Schwarz) 
(Fig.  99). 

Even  small  echinococci  may  most  exceptionally  occur  in  the  muscu- 
lature in  cases  of  unusually  heavy  infestation,  but  by  bearing  the 
characteristic  signs  of  this  parasite  in  mind,  no  difficulty  should  be 
encountered  in  recognizing  it. 

In  the  differentiation  of  caseous  and  calcified  measles,  there  come 
into  consideration — 


250  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

1.  Embolic  suppurations  in  the  muscles, 

2.  Calcareous  areas' of  degeneration. 

3.  Calcified    parasites    (trichinae,    echinococci,    thin-necked    bladder 
worms. 

These  occur  very  rarely  in  the  musculature  and  present  such  definite 
characteristic  appearances  in  the  area  affected  that  a  careful  examina- 
tion will  prevent  mistaking  them  for  measles. 

Judgment. — Measly  pork  in  a  raw  or  improperly  cooked  condition  is 
harmful  to  man,  inasmuch  as  the  hermit  tapeworm  develops  in  man  from 
the  measle.  This  parasite,  2  to  3.5  m.  in  length,  is  injurious  to  man. 

1.  By   causing  disturbances   of  digestion   and   nervous   symptoms, 
which  may  be  present  more  or  less  markedly  according  to  the  individual 
susceptibility  of  the  patient. 

2.  By  removal  of  foodstuffs  (nutrition). 

3.  By  the  danger  of  auto-infection  with  measles. 

FIG.  99  IMG.  JOO 


Hooks  of  the  Cysticercus  cellulosce.  Hooks  of  the  Cy  slice-mix  teniiicollix. 

Auto-infection  may  be  caused  by  uncleanliness  in  defecation,  or  through 
antiperistalsis,  in  which  the  ova  or  mature  segments  of  the  tapeworm  may 
gain  entrance  into  the  stomach  of  the  affected  individual  and  reproduce  in 
this  way  the  same  measle  development  which  occurs  in  the  regular  way  of  change 
of  host  in  the  hog.  But  the  development  of  this  species  in  the  human  bod}' 
is  of  special  gravity  and  danger,  as  it  frequently  appears  in  the  cerebrum,  spinal 
cord,  and  eyes,  producing  severe  disturbance  of  health  and  even  death. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  17,  Para- 
graph 1,  carcasses  affected  with  Cysticercus  cellulosce  may  be  passed 
for  lard  unless  the  infestation  is  excessive,  in  which  case  the  carcass 
is  condemned.] 

Regulations. — As  stated  on  page  248,  measles  may  be  made  harm- 
less by  high  temperature  and  strong  salt  solutions.  For  this  reason 
measly  pork  may  be  utilized  for  food,  provided  the  infestation  is  not 
too  heavy.  Meat  is  considered  heavily  infested  when  the  measles  are 
found  alive  or  dead  in  large  numbers  in  areas  as  large  as  the  palm  of 
the  hand,  on  incising  muscles  in  the  favorite  location  of  the  measles. 
This  is  the  case,  as  a  rule,  when  in  the  majority  of  the  cut  surfaces 
more  than  one  measle  is  found  in  each  section. 

Heavily  infested  measly  meat  possesses  characteristics  which  pro- 
duce a  general  disgust  and  make  the  meat  unfit  for  food.  This  is  also 


PARA  til  TIC   DIXEAHKH  251 

true  when  the  meat,  without  being  heavily  infested  with  measles,  is 
aqueous  or  discolored. 

Anent  the  utility  of  measly  meat,  the  true  musculature  is  to  be  con- 
sidered separate  from  the  fat  and  the  viscera.  Measles  rarely  occur  in 
the  fat  and  in  the  viscera,  nor  are  either  of  these  used  for  food  in 
the  raw  state.  Special  regulations,  therefore,  apply  to  these  tissues. 

Lightly  infested  measly  meat  (Cysticercus  cellnlosce)  may  be  made 
harmless  by  the  following  methods: 

1.  Thorough    Boiling. — Inasmuch    as    a   temperature   over   49°    C. 
destroys  measles,   thoroughly  boiled   pork  which  assumes  a  grayish- 
white  color  throughout,  even  in  the  thickest  portions,  and  in  which 
the  juice  emanating  on  section  is  no  longer  red,  is  to  be  considered 
harmless. 

2.  Pickling — Salting. — If  pork  has  been  thoroughly  salted  for  two 
to  three  weeks  the  measles  will  be  destroyed  with  certainty. 

3.  Freezing — Refrigeration. — After  large  pieces  of  pork  have  been 
kept  for  four  days  at  a  temperature  8°  to  10°  C.  below  zero,  the  measles 
contained  therein  will  be  found  dead.    This  method  has,  however,  not 
been  accepted  or  incorporated  into  legal  regulations. 

The  method  of  killing  beef  measles  (see  page  253)  by  sufficiently  long  pre- 
servation of  the  meat,  cannot  be  employed  in  pork  measles,  as  they  have  been 
found  viable  forty-two  days  after  the  death  of  the  host  (Ostertag). 

For  inspection  regulations,  see  page  252. 

Cysticercus  inermis  s.  bovis. — The  beef  measle  is  the  asexual  inter- 
mediate or,  larval  stage  of  the  tapeworm  Tcenia  saginata  s.  T.medio- 
canellata  s.  T.  inermis  of  man.  The  usually  oval,  grayish-white 
vesicles  contain  the  scoiex,  which  may  be  seen  within  the  cyst.  The 
scolex  contains  four  suckers,  but  no  crown  of  hooks.  Numerous  cal- 
careous (small)  bodies  may  be  seen  microscopically  in  the  neck  of  the 
scolex.  The  size,  of  the  measles  varies,  according  to  Kaeppel,  from 
5  to  19  mm.  in  length  and  3  to  8.5  mm.  in  width. 

Ostertag  was  the  first  to  establish  the  fact  that  numerous  measles 
may  become  completely  disintegrated  and  be  absorbed  later.  This 
explains  the  excess  of  infestation  in  younger  cattle. 

Processes  of  degeneration  are  much  more  common  in  beef  measles 
than  in  pork  measles,  and  may  appear  at  any  stage  of  development. 
Measles  of  the  viscera,  masticatory  muscle  and  tongue  muscle  are 
most  susceptible  to  degeneration  and  the  processes  of  caseation  are 
frequently  recognized  by  their  green  color.  If  the  scolex  has  also 
been  destroyed  in  these  retrogressive  metamorphoses,  and  is  not  demon- 
strable microscopically,  the  measles  are  without  doubt  dead. 

Occurrence — Prevalence. — Beef  measles  occur  relatively  seldom  in 
suckling  calves,  more  frequently  in  older  calves  and  beeves  in  the' 
intermuscular  connective  tissue,  although  usually  in  small  numbers. 
Sites  of  predilection  are  the  inner  (M.  pterygoid.  medial,  et  lateral.) 
and  outer  (M.  masseter)  muscles  of  mastication,  heart  and  tongue 
muscles.  Next  in  order  are  the  muscles  of  the  diaphragm,  diaphragmatic 


252  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

pillars,  esophagus,  larynx,  thorax,  intercostals,  and  rump  muscles; 
and,  in  fact,  they  are  found  in  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  but  their 
distribution  is  very  irregular.  Nests  of  measles  may  be  met  with 
suddenly  in  the  centre  of  a  large  uninfested  area.  In  severe  or  heavy 
invasion  the  lungs,  liver,  brain,  lymphatic  glands  and  fatty  tissue  are 
also  affected,  but  measles  have  been  found  in  these  organs  or  regions 
in  isolated  numbers,  in  even  very  slight  infestations. 

FIG.  101 


Scolex  of  the  Cysticercus  bovis.     X  50  diameters. 

Frequency. — According  to  the  Government  meat-inspection  statistics  for 
the  year  1904,  measles  occurred  in  the  German  Empire  in  3.2  of  every  1000 
head  of  cattle  slaughtered,  as  follows:  5.13  steers,  6.03  bulls,  1.67  cows,  3.21 
young  beeves,  and  0.024  calves. 

C.  bovis  does  not  occur  in  reindeer  meat,  but  the  armed  measles  of  Tcenia 
krabbei  are  found  there  (see  page  247). 

In  order  to  detect  beef  measles  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  make 
several  cuts  into  the  inner  and  outer  muscles  of  mastication,  to  inspect 
carefully  the  tongue  musculature,  also  to  inspect  carefully  the  heart 
externally  and  internally  after  laying  open  the  chambers  and  cutting 
through  the  dividing  wall.  It  is  understood  that  all  other  surfaces 
as  well  as  cut  surfaces  of  the  remaining  muscles  should  be  inspected 
for  beef  measles.  The  discovery  of  doubtful  formations  and  degenerated 
measles  requires  a  microscopic  examination. 

In  regard  to  the  likelihood  of  mistaking  beef  measles  for  similar 
structures,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  points  presented  on  page 
249  in  connection  with  pork  measles.  The  special  morphologic 
characteristics  of  beef  measles  are  always  to  be  borne  in  mind. 


I 'Mi' A  SI  TIC  DISEASES 


253 


Judgment.  —  Raw,  measly  beef  must  be  considered  injurious  to  man, 
as  the  4  to  6  meter  long  Toenia  saginata  is  developed  in  man  from  the 
ingested  beef  measle.  The  effect  of  infestation  in  man  is  the  same  as 
that  of  infestation  with  Tcenia  solium  (see  page  250),  except  that  the 
danger  of  auto-infection  has  not  been  observed  in  the  hosts  of  Tcenia 
saginata. 


Legal  Regulations  for  Inspection  of  Slaughter  Animals  Infested  with  Measles 

Injurious  to  Health 


Judging  of  the  meat. 


Finding. 


Heavy  infestation  with 
measles.  (Measles  occur 
alive  or  dead,  in  a  large 
number  of  the  pre- 
scribed muscle  sections 
or  the  meat  is  aqueous 
or  discolored  without  re- 
gard to  the  grade  of 
measle  infestation.) 


2.  Slight  infestation  with 
measles.  (All  cases  of 
finding  live  measles  with 
exception  of  heavy  in- 
festation with  measles, 
etc.,  as  under  1,  and  of 
one-measled  infestation 
as  under  3.) 


3.  One  measle:  (a)  Only  one 
measle  (live)  has  been 
found,  even  after  exami- 
nation of  the  animal 
body  upon  section  into 
pieces  of  about  2.5  kg. 


Beef. 


Hogs,  sheep,  goats. 


The  whole  body  is  unfit  for  food  with  the  following  exceptions: 


Fat,     liver,     spleen,     kidneys, 
stomach  and  intestines, 


Liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  stom- 
ach, and  intestines, 


are  fit  for  food  when  careful  examination  has  shown  them  to  be 
free  of  measles;  otherwise 


the  fat  is  to  be  used  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  and  the 
other  organs  are  unfit  for 
food. 


the  organs  are  unfit  for  food 
The  fat  is  considered  ad- 
missible, provisionally. 


The  entire  animal  body  may  be  utilized  with  certain  restrictions. 


The  fat,  liver,  spleen,  kidneys, 
stomach  and  intestines 


Liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  stomach, 
and  intestines 


are  fit  for  food  if  found  free  of  measles  upon  careful  inspection. 
I    Fat  is  always  fit,  conditionally. 

The  meat  is  to  be  excised  at  the  site  where  the  measle  is  situated 
and  this  portion  is  unfit  for  food. 


The  fat,  liver,  spleen,  kidneys, 
stomach,   and  intestines 


Liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  stomach, 
and  intestines 


are  to  be  considered  fit  for  food  without  cutting  them  into  sections 

if  upon  proper  inspection  they  have  been  found  free  of  measles. 

Nor  is  thorough  cooling  required. 


The  other  meat  is  impaired  in 
value. 


fb)  On  prescribed  examina-  As  under  3a. 
tion  for  measles  onlyone 
live  measle  has  been 
found,  and  the  meat 
has  been  kept  in  the 
cooling  or  refrigerating 
room  for  21  days. 


The  other  meat  is  fit  for  food 
without  restrictions. 


The   other   meat,   inclusive   of 
the  fat,  is  impaired  in  value 


Dog 


Regulations. — As  the  beef  measle  is  much  more  easily  killed  than 
the  pork  measle,  measly  beef  may  be  made  fit  for  human  food  by  boil- 
ing thoroughly,  salting,  freezing,  or  preserving  it  for  sufficient  length 
of  time  (cooling  it  thoroughly),  provided  that  the  infestation  is  not 
heavy  (see  page  250).  The  first  three  methods  have  already  been 
discussed  under  pork  measles  (page  251).  The  admission  of  so-called 
one-measled  beeves  (einfinnigen  Kinder)  as  human  food,  without 


254  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

previous  destruction  of  the  measles,  is  a  regulation  in  favor  of  com- 
mercial interest  against  which  weighty  sanitary  considerations  will 
not  prevail. 

In  regard  to  thorough  cooling  of  the  meat  and  its  effect  on  the  vitality 
of  the  measles  under  proper  preservation  of  the  meat,  numerous  experi- 
ments have  shown  that  the  beef  measle  survives  its  host  eighteen 
to  twenty  days  at  the  outside. 

If,  therefore,  slightly  infested  beef  be  kept  in  the  prescribed  manner 
(refrigerating  rooms)  for  at  least  three  weeks,  it  may  be  admitted  to 
the  trade  in  the  raw  state  without  incurring  any  risk  of  infestation. 

[The  regulation  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  applying  to  the  infestation 
of  pork  with  Cysticercus  celluloses,  which  was  quoted  on  page  250, 
applies  also  to  infestation  of  beef  with  Cysticercus  boms,  i.  e.,  unless 
the  infestation  is  excessive  the  carcass  may  be  rendered  into  tallow.] 

Trichinosis. — Trichinosis  is  due  to  Trichinella  spiralis  (Trichina 
spiralis},  a  round  worm  inhabiting  the  muscles  (muscle  trichina),  which 
is,  however,  not  a  sexually  mature  individual,  but  the  asexual  larval 
state  of  the  intestinal  trichina  whose  habitat  is  in  the  intestines. 

Generalities  and  Development. — The  intestinal  trichina  is  a  round 
worm  belonging  to  the  family  Trichotrachelidae,  according  to  Schneider, 
of  the  Holomyarite.  It  exists  in  both  sexes,  and  is  found  in  the  adult 
state  in  the  small  intestines  of  man  and  various  mammals.  The  males 
attain  a  length  of  1.5  mm.,  are  0.04  mm.  thick,  and  possess  two  caudal 
appendages  (sexual  spicules).  The  females  are  3  to  4  mm.  long  and 
0.06  mm.  thick. 

The  pointed  anterior  and  the  blunt  posterior  extremity  of  the  body, 
as  well  as  the  so-called  "cell  body,"  a  row  of  large  nucleated  cells 
which  lie  in  the  anterior  half  of  the  body  around  the  esophagus,  are 
characteristic  of  the  morphology  of  the  trichina, 

The  trichina  occurs  in  carnivorous  and  omnivorous  animals,  of 
which  the  following  deserve  special  mention:  Domestic  and  wild  hog, 
dog,  rat,  fox,  badger,  marten,  polecat,  bear,  cat.  It  may  be  trans- 
mitted to  a  number  of  other  mammals  by  feeding,  but  cannot  be 
transmitted  to  birds  or  cold-blooded  animals.  Muscle  trichina?  do 
not  develop  in  birds,  but  intestinal  trichina  may  occur  in  them. 

The  most  common  host  of  the  trichina,  no  doubt,  is  the  rat;  and 
these  animals  readily  transmit  the  infestation  to  each  other.  Animals 
which  prey  on,  or  occasionally  eat  rats,  may  become  infested  from 
them  (hog,  dog,  cat,  bear,  marten,  polecat),  and  the  trichina  contained 
in  their  meat  can  again  reinfest  the  rats.  Trichina  may  also  be  trans- 
mitted through  the  ingestion  of  feces  of  animals  which  have  eaten 
trichinous  meat.  The  transmission,  however,  is  not  directly  by  way 
of  intestinal  trichinae,  but  because  the  feces  contained  undigested 
trichinosed  meat  (Ostertag). 

Development  of  the  Trichinoe. — Upon  the  ingestion  of  meat  containing 
trichime,  the  latter  are  freed  through  digestion  of  the  parasitic  sacs 
and  their  surrounding  capsules  and  develop  to  sexually  mature  worms 
in  the  intestinal  tract.  The  males  die  shortly  after  impregnating  the 


PARASITIC  DISEASES 


255 


female  and  are  digested  and  discharged  with  the  feces,  but  the  females 
penetrate  into  the  glands  of  Lieberkiihn  of  the  intestinal  mucous  mem- 
brane with  their  anterior  extremity,  and  deposit 
their  young.  During  the  six  to  seven  weeks  of 
life  each  female  gives  birth  to  1500  to  2000, 
according  to  Braun  even  8000  to  10,000,  embryos 
of  0.1  mm.  in  length,  which  are  carried  into  the 
blood  by  the  intestinal  lymph  stream.  The 
blood  carries  them  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  and 
in  this  way  they  gain  access  to  the  striated  mus- 
cular tissues,  in  which  they  locate  exclusively,  the 
heart  excepted.  Trichina  embryos  in  other  tis- 
sues and  organs  of  the  body  die.  In  the  further 
development  of  trichina  embryos  in  the  striated 
muscles,  they  emerge  from  the  capillaries  partly 
by  diapedesis,  partly  by  boring  through  the  wall, 
and  enter  the  sarcolemma  sheath.  As  early  as 
the  seventh  to  eighth  day  after  ingestion  of 
trichinosed  meat,  the  first  wandering  embryos 
may  be  found  in  the  musculature.  The  embryos 
which  wander  within  the  muscle  sheath  to  the 
bony  or  tendinous  insertions  of  the  muscle  fibers 
destroy  the  contractile  contents  of  the  muscle 
sheath,  which  lose  their  striation  and  assume 
first  a  homogeneous,  then  a  granular  appearance. 
Finally,  the  embryos  become  quiescent  and  roll 
up  spirally  within  the  sarcolemma.  This  ter- 
minates the  migration  of  the  embryos,  which 
have  attained  a  length  of  1  mm.,  and  three  weeks 
after  ingestion  of  trichinosed  meat  have  become 
muscle  trichinae.  The  characteristics  of  the  mus- 
cle trichina,  which  has  no  sexual  apparatus,  are 
the  anterior  pointed  and  the  posterior  blunt 
extremity,  the  cell  body,  and  its  situation  within 
the  muscle  sheath.  The  encystment  of  the 
muscle  trichina  soon  begins,  forming  capsules 
of  a  lemon-shaped  form,  whose  longitudinal 
axis  corresponds  with  that  of  the  muscle  fibers. 
The  first  signs  of  the  capsules  may  be  observed 
during  the  fifth  week  following  infestation;  and 
nine  to  twelve  weeks  later  fully  developed  cap- 
sules will  be  found  everywhere.  The  capsule 
itself  is  structureless,  homogeneous,  shiny,  pos- 
sesses a  double  contour,  and  is  transparent  in 
the  beginning.  Fat  cells  form  at  the  poles  of 
the  capsules  within  the  muscle  sheath,  and  at  A  B 

the  end  of  three  months  lime  salts  also  appear.        Adult  tri(lhinffi:  A<  male; 

mi        i     ,  i        11  •  B,  female.     X  120  diameters. 

ihe  latter  gradually  encrust  the  entire  capsule     (After 


DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

and  sometimes  the  trichina  itself.  The  calcification  of  the  capsule 
may  be  complete  at  the  ninth  month,  but  it  usually  takes  eighteen 
months.  Muscle  trichinae  may  remain  active  within  the  capsule  for 
many  years  (they  have  been  found  alive  for  thirty-one  years  in  man). 


FIG.  103 


Encapsulated  muscle  trichinae.      X  60  diameters.     (After  Leuckart.) 

Historical. — The  trichina  was  first  named  by  Owen,  who  gave  a  detailed 
account  in  1835  of  a  worm  which  had  been  found  in  the  same  year  by  Paget, 
of  London,  encysted  in  the  musculature  of  man.  The  muscle  trichina  was 
found  in  hogs  by  Leidy,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1847.  In  1850,  Herbst,  of  Gottingen, 
made  the  first  experiments  in  the  transmission  of  trichina.  He  infected  a  badger 
with  the  encapsulated  trichinae  of  a  dog,  and  with  the  meat  from  the  badger, 
in  turn,  infected  two  dogs.  The  importance  of  trichina  to  man  was  recognized 
in  1869  by  Zenker,  of  Dresden,  who  found  sexually  mature  trichinae  in  the 
intestines  of  a  girl  who  had  died  from  typhoid ;  he  also  found  recent  unencap- 
sulated  muscle  trichinae  in  the  musculature.  He  was  enabled  to  prove  that 
the  girl  had  eaten  pork  which  had  been  found  by  him  to  be  heavily  infested 
with  trichinae.  In  view  of  this  discovery  some  of  the  best  known  investigators 
studied  the  trichina,  and  the  life  cycle  of  the  worm  was  established  by  Leuckart, 
Virchow,  Fiedler,  Haubner,  etc.  The  biological  study  of  the  trichina  received 
further  attention  later  from  Heitzmann,  Cerfontaine,  Geisse,  Askanazy,  Chatin, 
Graham,  Staeubli,  etc. 

The  great  danger  of  trichina  to  man  was  demonstrated  scientifically  for 
the  first  time  in  the  epidemics  of  trichinosis  at  Hettstedt  (1863),  where  160 
persons  became  infested  and  28  died,  and  at  Hedersleben  (1865),  where  337  cases 
occurred  with  101  deaths.  In  the  following  years  numerous  observations  of 
small  and  large  epidemics  were  made  in  the  most  widely  divergent  portions 
of  Central  and  North  Germany. 

The  distribution  of  trichinae  in  the  musculature  is  not  uniform. 
They  are  found  in  greatest  numbers  in  the  diaphragmatic  pillars  and 
the  diaphragmatic  muscles.  Heitzmann  explains  this  by  the  arrest 
of  the  embryos  at  the  moment  of  muscular  contraction,  which  causes 
a  transitory  contraction  or  narrowing  of  the  capillary  diameter.  In 
view  of  the  constant  activity  of  the  respiratory  muscles,  this  heavy 
infestation  of  trichinae  is  not  surprising.  Next  in  order  of  frequency 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  257 

of  invasion  are  the  tongue,  laryngeal  muscles,  lumbar,  masticatory, 
and  abdominal  muscles.  Specimens  for  examination  should,  therefore, 
be  taken  from  these  muscles  of  the  hog.  If  careful  microscopic  exami- 
nation of  the  diaphragmatic  pillar,  diaphragmatic,  laryngeal,  and  tongue 
muscles  has  failed  to  reveal  trichinae,  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  remain- 
ing musculature  does  not  harbor  parasites;  should  isolated  specimens 
occur  in  the  remaining  musculature,  the  ingestion  of  this  meat  is  never 
followed  by  any  deleterious  results.  Trichinae  do  not  occur  in  fat; 
sides  of  bacon  may  contain  them  should  muscle  tissue  be  adherent, 
especially  the  skin  muscles. 

The  frequency  of  trichinosis  in  hogs  is  variable  and  does  not  give  rise  to 
any  characteristic  symptoms  in  these  animals.  By  far  the  greater  number 
of  trichinosed  hogs  of  Germany  come  from  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Empire. 
In  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia,  0.005  per  cent,  of  hogs  examined  in  1904  were  found 
affected.  The  same  ratio  was  obtained  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  during 
1901  to  1905,  whereas  in  1891  to  1900,  0.01  per  cent,  of  all  slaughtered  and 
inspected  hogs  showed  trichinous  infection.  Trichinosis  among  hogs  in  Germany 
is,  therefore,  gradually  decreasing.  In  Saxony  it  was  found  that  hogs  imported 
from  Austria-Hungary  were  more  frequently  infected  than  those  at  home. 
Pork  from  America  has  been  found  trichinous  in  4  to  8  per  cent,  of  the  cases, 
according  to  our  observations  [i.  e.,  observations  made  in  Germany.  In  the 
United  States  the  percentage  of  trichinous  hogs  found  by  the  trichina  inspectors 
after  examining  thousands  of  carcasses  averaged  about  2  per  cent,  yearly.] 
Among  1177  dogs  slaughtered  in  Chemnitz  during  1897  to  1900,  13  (1.11  per 
cent.)  were  found  infested  with  trichinae.  In  the  entire  Kingdom  of  Saxony, 
in  1906,  among  3603  slaughtered  dogs  8  (0.222  per  cent.)  were  infested  with 
trichinae. 

In  order  to  discover  the  origin  of  infested  hogs  the  Imperial  Chancellor 
has  instituted  compulsory  trichina  inspection  in  the  various  states.  Every 
infested  animal  is  traced  and  reported  accordingly  to  the  Reichsamt  of  the 
interior,  which  in  turn  notifies  the  affected  sections  of  the  allied  states  of  the 
presence  of  trichina  in  hogs  coming  from  their  district. 

A  careful  microscopic  examination  is  necessary  in  order  to  recognize  trichina 
in  the  meat;  a  magnification  of  30  diameters  is  best. 

A  careful  examination  for  trichina  in  suckling  pigs,  wild  hogs,  dogs,  and 
bears,  according  to  the  directions  laid  down,  is  also  of  importance,  owing  to  the 
prevalence  of  trichina  in  man,  of  which  Opalka  has  recently  presented  interest- 
ing tables  (see  page  159). 

Diluted  acetic  acid  (1  :  30)  may  be  added  to  preparations  of  indistinct,  not 
entirely  fresh,  meat  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  it;  diluted  potassium  hydrate 
solution  may  be  added  to  salted  meat  or  ham  to  aid  swelling  of  the  muscle 
fibers. 

In  the  examination  of  pork,  the  specimens  should  always  be  taken 
in  hams,  etc.,  from  near  the  bones;  that  is,  at  the  tendinous  insertions 
of  the  muscles.  Examination  of  sausage  is  naturally  of  doubtful  value. 

For  the  compulsory  federated  trichina  inspection  among  the  allied 
states  of  the  German  Empire,  see  page  159. 

The  following  may  be  confounded  with  muscle  trichinae  in  their 
various  stages  of  development:  Calcareous  concretions  (see  page  209), 
Miescher's  bodies  (see  page  259),  specific  muscle  degeneration  of  the 
hog  (see  page  209),  and  crystals  of  tyrosin  (ham);  their  characteristics 
on  careful  examination  will,  however,  prevent  mistakes.  Vinegar 
17 


258  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

eels  may  accidentally  gain  access  to  the  preparation,  but  these  are  easily 
recognized  by  their  active  serpentine  movements.  They  are  also  almost 
twice  as  large  as  muscle  trichinae,  and  will  be  found  in  the  fluid  which 
has  been  added,  rarely  between  the  muscle  fibers.  Worms,  similar 
to  embryos  of  Strongylus  paradoxus,  have  been  found  in  preparations 
for  inspection  of  trichina  (Wallman,  Georges,  Tiemann).  They  may 
gain  access  as  the  result  of  cutting  the  lungs  of  the  hog,  and  in  this 
way  get  into  the  microscopic  preparation. 

In  addition,  trichina-like  worms  (so-called  pseudotrichinse)  have  also  been 
found  in  the  musculature  of  various  animals  (rat,  rabbit,  mouse,  fowl,  fish, 
mole).  Under  careful  examination,  these  are  unlikely  to  be  mistaken  for 
trichinae.  These  round  worms  never  occur  in  the  muscle  sheaths,  possess  no 
cell  body,  and  taper  at  both  ends.  In  the  case  of  capsule  formation  they  will 
not  be  found  of  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  trichina  capsule,  but  of  connective- 
tissue-like  formation. 

For  details  regarding  pseudotrichinse,  see  Johne's  Der  Trichinenschauer: 

Judgment. — Trichinous  meat  is  injurious  to  health,  as  its  ingestion 
causes  trichinosis  resulting  fatally  in  10  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  cases. 
The  disease  may  occur  epidemically  when  meat  heavily  infested  with 
trichina?  is  dispensed  in  numerous  small  portions  at  one  time.  It  is 
to  be  presumed,  however,  that  the  trichinous  meat  has  been  eaten 
in  the  raw  state,  in  an  imperfectly  cooked  condition,  or  in  the  form  of 
slightly  smoked  ham  or  sausages.  The  muscle  trichinae  are  not  very 
resistant  to  the  usual  methods  of  preparation  of  meats.  Tempera- 
tures of  over  62°  to  70°  C.  kill  the  parasites  by  coagulation  of  the 
albumen.  Salting  or  pickling  of  the  meat  will  not  kill  the  trichinae 
in  the  surface  layers  in  less  than  fourteen  days,  and  those  in  the  deeper 
tissues  will  require  four  to  six  weeks  for  their  extermination.  Hot 
smoke  is  effective,  partly  through  the  heat,  partly  through  the  cresols 
of  the  smoke,  thus  destroying  the  trichinae;  but  the  process  is  rather 
a  slow  one  in  large  pieces  of  meat. 

In  decaying  meat  and  under  the  influence  of  low  temperatures  (minus  15° 
to  20°  C.),  the  muscle  trichinae  retain  their  vitality  for  weeks.  Wandering 
embryos  are  harmless,  and  muscle  trichina  continue  their  development  in 
another  host  only  after  they  develop  sexual  parts  and  have  attained  a  body 
length  of  0.5  to  0.75  mm. 

Trichinous  meat  of  wild  hogs,  dogs,  and  bear  is  to  be  judged  like  that  of 
domestic  hogs ;  examination  for  trichinae  is  absolutely  essential  before  the  meat 
is  to  be  used  for  food. 

Regulations. — As  infested  meat  can  be  rendered  harmless  easily 
by  the  action  of  high  degrees  of  temperature,  there  is  no  reason  why 
trichinous  meat  should  be  withdrawn  from  the  food  supply  of  man. 
The  judgment  of  the  fat,  in  which  trichinae  do  not  occur,  will  be  more 
favorable  even  than  that  of  the  muscles.  For  reasons  similar  to  those 
given  under  measles  it  will  be  necessary  to  distinguish  between  slightly 
and  heavily  infested  meat.  Meat  is  considered  heavily  infested  when 
microscopic  examination  of  six  preparations  taken  from  the  pillars  of 


PARASITIC  DISEASES  ,  259 

the  diaphragm,  the  costal  portions  of  the  diaphragm,  the  laryngeal 
and  tongue  muscles  (24  specimens  in  all)  discloses  trichinae  in  nine  or 
more  of  the  preparations.  While  the  strongly  trichinous  muscle  meat, 
as  well  as  trichinous  dog  meat,  is  to  be  considered  unfit  for  use  in  every 
case,  slightly  trichinous  meat,  inclusive  of  the  fat  of  the  strongly  trichi- 
nous hogs,  may  be  considered  fit,  with  certain  restrictions. 

Legal  Regulations  for  Rendering  Decisions. — The  presence  of  trichinae 
renders  unfit  for  food:  (1)  The  entire  body  of  dogs  [dogs  are  not  con- 
sidered as  food  animals  in  the  United  States],  (2)  the  entire  body, 
exclusive  of  the  fat,  of  strongly  trichinosed  hogs;  and  conditionally 
fit,  (a)  the  entire  body  in  slightly  trichinosed  hogs;  (b)  the  fat  of  hogs 
described  under  (2)  above. 

Unfit  trichinosed  meat  may  be  removed  or  destroyed  only  by  the 
employment  of  high  degrees  of  temperature  or  by  chemically  effect- 
ing a  dissolution  of  the  soft  parts. 

General  Diseases  Produced  by  Protozoa. — SARCOSPORIDIOSIS. — Of  the 
sarcosporidia,  which  cause  sarcosporidiosis,  one  genus  inhabits  the 
muscle  fibers  (Miescheria)  and  another  is  found  in  the  connective 
tissue  (Balbiania). 

1.  MIESCHER'S  BODIES. — Miescher's  or  psorospermial  bodies,  which, 
according  to  Blanchard,  may  be  subdivided  into  the  genera  Mies- 
cheria and  Sarcocystis,  are  found  in  the  musculature  of  hogs,  sheep, 
horses,  cattle,  goats,  dogs,  deer,  antelope,  rabbits,  and  chickens.  They 
are  composed  of  straight,  faintly  spindle-shaped  structures  3  mm.  long 
and  0.006  to  0.4  mm.  wide,  and  lie  within  the  contractile  contents  of 
the  striated  muscle  fibers. 

General  Development. — Miescher's  bodies  are  composed  of  a  delicate 
enveloping  membrane,  sending  delicate  fasciculi  into  the  interior. 
The  latter  is  filled  with  spherical  kidney  or  sickle-shaped  bodies  (sporo- 
zoites,  Rainey's  bodies),  which  are  probably  without  a  surrounding 
sheath,  but  nucleated.  The  sporozoites  may  decompose  and  form  a 
granular  detritus;  quite  commonly  calcification  of  the  psorosperms 
occurs.  In  what  manner  and  in  what  form  these  parasites  gain  access 
to  the  animal  body  is  as  little  known  as  is  their  development  in  the 
animal  body,  which  probably  is  of  an  embolic  nature. 

Lesions. — The  sacs  of  Miescher  (Sarcocystis  miescheriana)  occur  in 
the  striated  muscles  of  the  hog,  but  are  found  most  frequently  in  the 
abdominal  and  diaphragmatic  muscles.  The  large  sacs,  especially 
when  calcified,  may  be  seen  macroscopically  as  light  gray,  pointed 
or  tapering  oblong  dots  in  the  dark  musculature,  but  the  smaller  ones 
cannot  be  found  without  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  They  are  peculiarly 
granulated  structures  within  otherwise  unchanged  muscle  fiber  (Fig. 
104).  In  the  smaller  sacs,  and  with  a  high  magnification,  the  thor- 
oughly preserved  striation  of  the  muscle  fibers  may  be  made  out  along- 
side of  the  parasite.  After  calcification  has  occurred  the  sac  will  appear 
as  a  more  or  less  opaque,  almost  black  structure  macroscopically. 
Of  the  muscles  of  sheep,  the  abdominal  and  skin  muscles  are  most 
frequently  inhabited,  and  here  very  large  Miescher's  bodies  (Sarcocystis 


260  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

tenella)  obtain.  Small  microscopic  sacs  may  occur  in  other  muscles 
also.  Not  infrequently  macroscopic  Miescher's  sacs  (Sarcocystis  ber- 
trami)  are  found  in  the  neck  and  esophageal  muscles  of  the  horse. 
Miescher's  bodies  (Sarcocystis  blanchardi)  are  uncommon  in  cattle  in 
this  country",  and  may  be  recognized  by  their  milletseed  to  barley- 
seed  size  and  yellowish-green  appearance. 

Miescher's  bodies,  when  in  the  calcified  state,  may  be  confounded 
with  the  so-called  calcareous  concretions  (lime  deposits)  (see  page 
209),  and,  in  the  hog,  with  calcified  trichinae  (see  page  256).  In  both 
cases  the  addition  of  acetic  acid  will  remove  the  calcification,  and  the 
microscopic  examination  will  reveal  the  substratum  of  the  calcification. 


FIG.  104 


Sacs  of  Miescher  from  hog  muscles:  a,  b,  longitudinal  and  transverse  section  of  muscle.    X  60  diameters. 
c,  longitudinal  section  of  muscle.     X  380  diameters.     (After  Ziegler.) 

Judgment. — The  very  fact  that  the  presence  of  Miescher's  sacs 
in  the  muscles  does  not  irritate  the  latter,  nor  produce  any  symptoms 
of  disease  in  the  animals,  would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  they  are 
harmless  parasites.  They  have  not  yet  been  positively  described  as 
having  been  found  in  man,  nor  has  their  transmission  through  inges- 
tion  of  meat  been  observed. 

The  report  by  Beel  of  a  disagreeably  sweetish  odor  of  the  meat  in 
the  case  of  a  hog  heavily  infested  with  sarcosporidia  has  not  been 
verified  by  other  authors. 

Regulations. — The  utility  of  the  meat  infested  with  Miescher's 
bodies  depends  on  the  appearance  of  the  meat  and  the  intensity  of  the 
infestation. 

If  the  meat  does  not  show  infestation  macroscopically,  it  may  be 
used  with  impunity.  If  the  calcified  sacs  are  visible  macroscopically, 
and  if  they  are  present  in  large  numbers  in  all  the  muscles,  or  if  the 
meat  (musculature)  shows  greenish  or  yellowish  spots,  or  if  it  is  edema- 
tous,  the  entire  carcass,  exclusive  of  the  fat,  is  to  be  condemned.  If 
the  changes  are  confined  to  certain  muscles,  as  in  sheep  and  cattle,  these 


PARASITIC  DISEASES 


261 


FIG.  105 


muscles  are  to  be  condemned.  In  intermediate  grades  of  infestation 
the  meat  is  to  be  admitted  to  the  trade,  but  considered  as  of  inferior 
quality. 

In  the  cases  of  infestation  with  Miescher's  bodies  in  which  the  meat 
has  been  condemned,  the  fat  is  to  be  rendered;  in  all  other  cases  it  is 
to  be  treated  as  the  meat  is  treated. 

2.  BALBIANHXE. — The  balbianidse  are  designated  as  psorospermial 
pouches  as  compared  with  the  psorospermic  bodies  of  Miescher.  They 
occur  in  the  esophagus  of  sheep,  goats,  horses,  cattle,  buffaloes,  and 
deer,  often  in  large  numbers.  They  are  found  more  rarely  in  the  tongue, 
laryngeal,  thoracic,  abdominal,  and  eye  muscles,  and  in  the  heart. 
On  account  of  their  size,  Railliet  named  them  Balbiania 
gigantea  (Sarcocystis  gigantea). 

Lesions. — The  intermuscular  connective  tissue  of  the 
esophagus  contains  milletseed  to  hazelnut-sized  yellow- 
ish-white cysts,  with  suppurative  contents,  composed 
mainly  of  sporozoites  (Fig.  105). 

Judgment. — On  account  of  their  objectionable  con- 
sistence all  muscles  inhabited  by  Balbianidse  are  to  be 
condemned. 

HEMOSPORIDIOSIS. — 1 .  PIROPLASMOSIS. — Piroplasmo- 
ses  are  diseases  of  the  blood  occasioned  by  protozoa  of 
the  genus  Piroplasma  or  Pyrosoma.  The  transmission 
of  these  parasites  is  effected  through  the  medium  of 
ticks  (in  Europe,  Ixodes  redumus  [I.  ricinus],  in  other 
places, Rhipicephalus  orMargaropus  [Boophilus] species). 

Piroplasmosis  of  Cattle. — This  epizootic  or  isolated, 
sometimes  acute,  but  more  often  chronic,  disease  is 
produced  by  the  Piroplasma  bigeminum  (Pyrosoma 
bigem.  Smith  and  Kilborne;  Apiosoma  bigem.  Wandol- 
leck  Peron;  Ixidioplasma  bigem.  Schmidt;  Babesia 
boms) . 

Pathogenesis. — The  parasites  on  gaining  access  to 
the  blood  by  transmission  through  ticks,  occasion 
destruction  of  the  red  blood  corpuscles  of  cattle. 
This  results  in  hemoglobinemia,  and  in  severe  cases  in  hemoglobinuria 
and  icterus.  The  cell  detritus  causes  emboli,  hemorrhages,  and  paren- 
chymatous  nephritis.  After  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of 
parasites,  fever  sets  in.  In  some  cases  death  from  asthenia  occurs  as 
the  result  of  the  disturbances  of  nutrition  and  rapid  decrease  of  the 
erythrocytes. 

Symptoms — Lesions. — In  the  living  animal  there  may  be  present 
symptoms  of  fatigue,  emaciation,  fever  of  40°  to  42°  C.,  disturbed 
rumination,  and  in  the  beginning,  irritation  and  even  attacks  of  mad- 
ness may  be  observed.  There  is  retention  of  fecal  matter  and  colic; 
later  thin  stools,  with  mixture  of  mucus  and  blood.  The  milk  secre- 
tion is  diminished.  Afterward  there  follow  muscular  tremors,  uncertain 
gait,  swelling  of  superficial  lymph  glands,  lacrymation,  reddening  of 


Esophagus  of  sheep 
with  balbianidae. 


262  DISEASES  OF  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

the  mucous  membranes,  which  subsequently  become  pale  and  icteric. 
The  urine  at  first  is  reddish  and  later  turns  darker  and  darker.  The 
disease  is  fatal  in  four  or  five  days  in  unfavorable  cases.  In  the 
lighter  forms  improvement  occurs  about  the  middle  of  the  first  week, 
the  fever  diminishes,  but  convalescence  is,  as  a  rule,  very  slow. 

In  the  slaughtered  animal  are  found,  according  to  the  stage  of  the 
disease,  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines  with 
small  hemorrhages  and  erosions;  hypertrophy  of  the  liver,  the  latter 
being  flabby,  lusterless,  faintly  reddish  brown,  and  permeated  by 
yellowish  bands  and  spots;  the  spleen  is  considerably  enlarged,  the 
pulp  highly  injected  and  softened;  urinary  bladder  is  filled  with  light 
to  dark  red  urine,  and  the  mucous  membrane  shows  numerous  hemor- 
rhages; there  is  cloudy  swelling  of  the  kidneys;  hemorrhages  in  the 
serous  membranes;  the  blood  is  light  red  and  thin;  icterus  is  present 
in  some  cases. 

FIG.  106 

^fe  Ji§\  - 

V 


Piroplasma  bigeminum.  Typical  ring  and  pear-shaped  forms.  The  upper  row  stained  with  alkaline 
methylene  blue;  the  lower  according  to  Romano wsky  (After  Kossel  and  Weber,  from  Hutyra  and 
Marek.) 

The  recognition  of  the  disease  is  facilitated  during  life  by  finding 
the  parasites  on  microscopic  examination  of  the  blood. 

Dried  cover-glass  preparations  are  fixed  in  absolute  alcohol,  or 
in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  ether,  and  stained  with  a 
1  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  methylene  blue. 

In  the  differential  diagnosis  anthrax,  hemorrhagic  septicemia,  and 
hematuria  must  be  considered;  the  symptoms  in  these  diseases,  as 
well  as  their  bacteriologic  findings,  differ  in  important  features  from 
those  of  piroplasmosis. 

Judgment. — The  judgment  will  depend  on  the  grade  of  the  disease 
and  on  the  fact  that  this  affection  is  not  transmissible  to  man  by  inges- 
tion  of  the  meat.  In  severe  cases  the  meat  is  to  be  condemned;  in 
lighter  forms  the  question  of  inferior  value  will  have  to  be  considered. 

[Carcasses  affected  with  Texas  fever  should  be  condemned,  accord- 
ing to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  14.] 

Of  the  more  important  piroplasmoses  should  be  mentioned : 

Texas  fever  of  cattle,  which  occasions  tremendous  losses  in  the  United 
States  of  North  America,  and  is  responsible  for  the  German  law  pre- 
venting importation  of  American  cattle. 


PARASITIC  DISEASES 


Diseases  of  cattle  similar  in  their  intensity  and  rate  of  mortality  to 
Texas  fever  occur  in  German  East  Africa,  Hungary  (forest  disease), 
Roumania  (epizootic  hemoglobinuria),  Italy  (malaria  of  cattle),  Sardinia 
(hematuria),  Finland,  Turkey,  Argentine  Republic  (tristeza),  Australia 
(tick  fever),  South  Africa  (redwater  or  coast  fever). 


FIG.  107 


FIG.  108 


Piroplasma  bigeminum.  Round  and  pear- 
shaped  forms.  Cattle  blood.  Stained  with 
methylene  blue.  (After  Hutyra  and  Marek.) 


Piroplasma  bigeminum.  Rod-shaped  forms. 
Cattle  blood.  Stained  according  to  Laveran. 
(After  Hutyra  and  Marek.) 


FIG.  109 


Infectious  hemoglobinuria  of  cattle  (enzootic  bloody  urine),  occurs 
sporadically  in  Germany  as  well  as  enzootically.  It  differs  from  Texas 
fever  by  a  longer  period  of  incubation  and  a  milder  course. 

The  South  African  horse  malaria  (Geglielmi,  Rickmann),  which 
is  frequently  associated  with  a  separate  and  distinct  enzootic  disease 
of  horses  described  by  Theiler. 

Carceag  or  parasitic  icterohematuria  of 
sheep  in  Roumania,  which  also  occurs  in 
other  countries  (malarial  catarrhal  fever). 

Malignant  jaundice  of  dogs  in  France, 
Hungary,  Italy,  Africa,  and  India  (malig- 
nant malarial  fever,  malignant  protozoan 
jaundice). 

2.  TRYPANOSOMIASIS. —  (a).  Surra  and 
tsetse-fly  disease,  or  nagana  of  cattle, 
camels,  horses,  and  elephants  in  Africa 
and  India,  and  mal  de  caderas  of  horses 
in  South  America,  are  caused  by  flagellate 
infusoria  (trypanosomes) ,  and  are  without 
importance  in  meat  inspection. 

(6)  The  investigations  of  Schneider  and. 
Buffard  proved  that  dourine  of  horses  must  also  be  classified  as  a 
protozoan  (trypanosoma)  disease,  and  the  results  of  these  investiga- 
tors were  confirmed  by  Nocard.  At  the  present  time  this  disease  is 
of  no  importance  from  a  sanitary  police  standpoint. 


Trypanosoma  equinum  s.  elmassiani. 
Guinea-pig  blood.  (After  Hutyra  and 
Marek.) 


CHAPTER    VIII 
INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  OF  FOOD  ANIMALS  TRANSMISSIBLE 

TO  MAN 

TUBERCULOSIS 

TUBERCULOSIS  occurs  among  all  food-producing  animals,  and  is  the 
disease  with  which  the  veterinary  inspector  is  mostly  occupied.  Etio- 
logically,  it  is  identical  with  tuberculosis  of  man,  and  is  caused  by  the 
tubercle  bacillus  discovered  by  Koch  in  1882.  The  disease  in  animals 
runs  a  chronic  course. 

Pathogenesis. — The  development  of  the  disease  requires  a  certain 
predisposition  in  the  body,  which  affords  favorable  colonizing  con- 
ditions for  the  entering  tubercle  bacilli.  The  disease  may,  according 
to  the  mode  of  infection,  become  established  in  the  following  manner: 

1.  Through  the  respiratory  tract  (inhalation  tuberculosis). 

2.  Through  the  digestive  tract  (ingestion  tuberculosis). 

3.  Through  the  female  genital  organs  (genital  infection,  generative 
tuberculosis). 

4.  Through  the  skin  (cutaneous  tuberculosis). 

5.  From  the  umbilical  vein  during  intrauterine  development  of  the 
fetus  (fetal  tuberculosis,  congenital  tuberculosis). 

Although  in  accordance  writh  these  modes  of  infection  the  primary 
lesion  of  the  disease  is  expected  to  be  present  in  the  respective  organs, 
nevertheless,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  tubercle  bacilli  will  not 
produce  an  affection  at  the  seat  of  entrance,  but  will  be  disseminated 
throughout  the  body  and  only  cause  lesions  remote  from  the  place  of 
entry. 

The  fact  that  lymph  glands  offer  especially  favorable  conditions  for 
the  colonization  and  development  of  tubercle  bacilli  is  of  importance 
in  meat  inspection,  and  they  must  therefore  be  regarded  as  favorite 
locations  for  tuberculosis. 

As  soon  as  tubercle  bacilli  find  conditions  favorable  for  develop- 
ment in  any  tissue  of  the  body,  they  multiply  and  cause  a  reaction 
of  that  tissue.  This  is  manifested  as  a  round-cell  proliferation,  which 
appears  either  in  the  form  of  an  isolated  tubercle  or  as  a  tuberculous 
infiltration.  The  isolated  tubercle  in  its  developed  condition  forms 
a  gray,  transparent,  non-vascular,  cellular  nodule  of  the  size  of  a  millet- 
seed,  which  encloses  tubercle  bacilli.  Among  these  cells  there  develop, 
as  a  rule,  multinuclear  giant  cells,  which  are  centrally  located.  In 
the  case  of  tuberculous  infiltration,  principally  exudative  processes 
of  a  fibrous  nature  appear.  Retrogressive  processes  soon  taK&  place 


TUBERCULOSIS  2G5 

from  the  centre  of  the  tubercle,  as  a  result  of  which  the  latter  becomes 
clouded  and  changes  to  a  grayish  or  yellowish-white  color;  the  tubercle 
becomes  caseous  (coagulation  necrosis  with  secondary  granular  dis- 
integration). In  the  tuberculous  infiltration  the  retrogressive  processes 
consist  of  a  more  purely  coagulation  necrosis,  e.  g.,  hyaline  degeneration. 
If  the  periphery  of  the  tubercle  does  not  disintegrate  it  will  gradually 
become  fibrous,  and  a  caseofibrous  tubercle  develops.  The  forma- 
tion of  entirely  fibrous  tubercles  in  food  animals,  except  in  the  horse, 
is  rare.  These  processes  are  followed  by  a  further  retrogressive  meta- 
morphosis, that  of  calcification  of  the  tubercle,  which  is  of  special 
importance  in  food  animals.  Suppuration  of  the  tubercle  and  the  forma- 
tion of  abscesses  or  cavities  may  result  from  a  simultaneous  infection 
with  pus-forming  organisms,  or,  as  Bongert  has  proved  in  case  of  cattle, 
it  may  result  when  tubercle  bacilli  die  gradually  in  great  numbers. 
Abscesses  and  cavities  occur  comparatively  rarely  in  food  animals. 
Ulcers,  however,  may  be  formed  as  a  result  of  the  caseation  of  tubercles 
located  on  the  surface  of  mucous  membranes. 

Notwithstanding  the  degenerative  processes  within  the  tubercle, 
the  latter  may  increase  continually  in  size  on  the  outside  and  thus 
develop  into  larger  nodules  and  tubercles.  The  confluence  of  small 
nodules  may  lead  to  the  formation  of  conglomerates  or  to  new  forma- 
tions of  a  fibrous  character. 

Methods  of  Dissemination. — The  methods  of  dissemination  of  tuber- 
culosis and  its  metastatic  formations  are  of  special  importance  in  the 
judgment  of  tuberculous  animals. 

1.  Dissemination    by    the    Lymphatic    System. — Lymphatic    miliary 
tubercles  are  formed  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  primary  tubercle  and 
the  lymph  glands  involved  become  diseased.    By  means  of  the  further 
dissemination  of  the  tubercle  bacilli  by  the  lymphatic  fluid  other 
lymphatic  glands  lying  nearer  the  heart  and  finally  the  lymph  of  the 
thoracic  duct  and  the  blood  itself  may  become  infected. 

As  the  lymphatic  fluid  flows  from  the  inside  of  the  organs  toward 
their  surface  (e.  g.,  toward  the  corresponding  lymphatic  glands),  it 
becomes  self-evident  that  an  infection  of  the  organ  cannot  be  in  an 
inward  direction  from  the  surface.  Should  the  bacilli  enter  the  lymph 
of  the  thoracic  or  abdominal  cavities,  then  not  only  the  serous  mem- 
branes may  become  infected  (serous  tuberculosis),  but  the  bacilli  may 
also  enter  the  adjoining  cavity  through  the  lymph  spaces  of  the  dia- 
phragm. 

2.  Dissemination    by    the    Blood. — This   may   take   place   after  the 
entry  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  blood  in  the  way  described,  or  also 
after  a  direct  penetration  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  blood  stream, 
when  the  walls  of  the  veins  become  diseased  or  destroyed  by  caseation 
of  tuberculous  foci.     As  a  result  of  the  dissemination  of  the  tubercle 
bacilli  by  means  of  the  blood  a  hematogenous  miliary  tuberculosis 
(embolic  tuberculosis)  develops  at  the  point  where  the  bacilli  are  de- 
posited and  multiply.     The  bacilli  which  have  come  into  the  venous 
blood  may  be  retained  in  the  lungs,  and  if  their  penetration  occurred 


2(H)     IXFKCTIOL'X   D/XKASKX  IX   FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

at  the  basic  region  of  the  portal  vein  they  may  be  retained  in  the  liver, 
which  is  by  no  means  unusual  in  a  mild  infection  of  the  blood.  When 
the  venous  blood  is  flooded  with  great  numbers  of  tubercle  bacilli,  or 
when  the  latter  enter  the  veins  of  the  lungs,  they  pass  into  the  arterial 
blood  of  the  large  circulatory  system  and  thereby  into  the  whole  body. 
This  process  of  dissemination  is  known  as  "generalized  tuberculosis." 

In  the  dissemination  of  tubercle  bacilli  through  the  large  circulatory 
system  the  placenta  may  also  become  infected,  and  from  there  infec- 
tion may  spread  to  the  fetus. 

3.  Dissemination  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  on  the  Surface  of  Mucous  Mem- 
brane by  Means  of  Secretions. — This  process  may  not  only  transmit 
a  further  infection  of  the  organs  belonging  to  the  affected  apparatus 
(larynx,  trachea,  bronchi,  and  other  parts  of  the  lungs;  lymph  glands 
of  the  palate,  small  and  large  intestines),  but  it  may  also  lead  to  the 
infection  of  another  organ  or  tract.  Thus  infection  of  the  digestive 
apparatus  may  result  in  consequence  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis  if 
the  tuberculous  excretions  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membranes  are 
swallowed.  To  the  first-mentioned  form  of  dissemination  belongs 
the  spreading  of  tubercle  bacilli  from  the  kidneys  by  means  of  the  urine 
to  the  pelvis  of  the  kidneys,  ureters,  bladder,  or  to  the  urethra. 

Forms  of  Tuberculosis. — Meat  inspection  must  distinguish  between 
two  forms  of  tuberculosis  in  accordance  with  the  aforesaid  methods 
of  dissemination. 

Localized  Tuberculosis. — This  term  designates  the  following  conditions : 

(ft)  The  infection  of  a  single  part  of  the  body  with  the  correspond- 
ing lymph  glands.  This  form  of  tuberculosis  is  most  frequent  in  food- 
producing  animals  on  account  of  the  small  number  of  bacilli  in  the 
tuberculous  processes. 

(6)  Infection  of  several  parts  of  the  body  without  the  concurrence 
of  the  large  circulatory  system.  In  this  case  the  tuberculous  processes 
have  originated  from  a  primary  infection  by  continuous  development 
through  dissemination  of  the  bacilli  by  means  of  the  lymphatic  or 
secretive  juices,  and,  as  far  as  the  blood  enters  into  consideration, 
through  the  portal  circulation. 

Generalized  Tuberculosis. — This  form  exists  when  a  part  of  the 
body  is  affected  to  which  the  tubercle  bacilli  can  be  canied  by  the 
arterial  blood  only  (e.  g.,  spleen,  kidneys,  suprarenal  glands,  testicles, 
ovaries,  udder  (Plate  V),  bones,  muscles,  body  lymph  glands,  central 
nervous  system,  eyes,  etc.).  The  number  and  consistence  of  tuber- 
'culous  processes  which  develop  in  generalized  cases  depend  upon  the 
degree  of  prevalence  of  bacilli  in  the  blood  and  upon  the  filterable  action 
of  the  liver  and  lungs.  When  this  action  is  very  marked  many  bacilli 
are  retained  by  these  organs,  and  both  lungs  and  liver  are  found  to  be 
everywhere  uniformly  permeated  with  tuberculous  nodules  of  a  similar 
stage  of  development  (hematogenous  miliary  tuberculosis).  Acute 
miliary  tuberculosis  may  be  defined  as  the  dissemination  of  tubercle 
bacilli  by  means  of  blood  shortly  preceding  the  death,  which  results 
in  the  production  in  most  of  the  organs  of  a  countless  number  of  erup- 


PLATE    IV 


FIG. 


">~ 


Tubercle  Bacilli.    Fuchsin  and  Methylene  Blue  Staining 
X  4OO.     (Aaer  Ziegler.) 


FIG.  2 


Changes-ln  the  Tissue    Produced  by  a    Fresh    Invasion  of 
Tubercle    Bacilli.     (After  Baumgarten.) 

a  proliferating  connective  tissue;  6,  cross-section  of  bloodvessel;  r.  karyo- 
nve    tissue;    ,1.  karyomitosis  of  an    endothel 

leukocytes.     X   33O. 


F10 


.: 


... 


Giant  Cell  Containing  Bacilli  from  a  Tubercle  with   Necrotic 
Centre.     X  35O.     (After1  Ziegler.) 


PLATE   V 


Section   of  a   Tuberculous    Udder   of  a    Cow    with 
Adjacent  Lymph  Glands. 


TUBERCULOSIS  2(>7 

tions  of  only  slightly  degenerated  tubercles  of  uniform  size.  When  the 
venous  blood  is  poor  in  bacilli  only  a  few  single  tubercles  will  develop 
in  the  liver  and  lungs.  The  presence  of  numerous  embolic  tubercles  in 
the  lungs  is  of  marked  diagnostic  significance,  as  it  positively  indicates 
infection  of  the  blood  with  numerous  tubercle  bacilli,  and  points  to  the 
suspicion  of  generalized  tuberculosis. 

Generalized  tuberculosis,  is  infrequent  among  food  animals,  and 
does  not  lead  to  uniform  development  of  tubercles  in  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  arrangement  of  the  bloodvessels  in  the  various  organs 
and  the  extent  of  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the  organs  are  essentially 
decisive.  Generalized  tuberculosis,  in  addition  to  the  lesions  of  the 
lungs  and  liver,  is  usually  found  in  the  spleen  and  kidneys,  in  the  various 
body  lymph  glands,  in  the  bones  and  joints,  and  in  the  udder  and 
uterus.  Tuberculosis  of  the  uterus,  however,  does  not  indicate  a  gener- 
alized condition  in  every  instance,  e.  g.,  passing  of  tubercle  bacilli  from 
the  abdominal  cavity  through  the  Fallopian  tubes  into  the  uterus. 
The  muscles  proper  are  so  very  rarely  affected  that  by  many  they  are 
considered  as  almost  immune  to  tuberculosis.  Tubercle  bacilli  which 
enter  the  circulatory  system  but  are  not  deposited  in  any  of  the  organs 
die  in  from  four  to  six  days,  as  was  established  by  Nocard  and  others. 

Prevalence  of  Tuberculosis  in  Food  Animals. — The  statement  made  by 
Ostertag  that  "at  least  25  per  cent,  of  the  older  cattle  are  tuberculous"  is 
perfectly  true. 

According  to  meat-inspection  statistics  of  the  German  Empire  the  percentage 
of  tuberculosis  in  animals  slaughtered  in  1904" was  as  follows: 

Cattle,  17.88  per  cent.;  calves,  0.26;  sheep,  0.20;  goats,  0.69;  hogs,  2.46; 
horses,  0.15;  dogs,  0.85. 

Tuberculosis  in  cattle  was  most  prevalent  in  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  with 
34.48  per  cent.,  Schaumburg-Lippe  being  lowest,  with  5.73  per  cent. 

Tuberculosis  in  calves  was  most  prevalent  in  Pommerania  (Prussia),  with 
0.79  per  cent.,  while  Alsace-Lorraine  was  lowest,  with  0.02  per  cent. 

The  Kingdom  of  Saxony  also  had  the  highest:  percentage  of  tuberculosis 
in  hogs,  with  5.13  per  cent.,  Hohenzollern  being  lowest,  with  0.30  per  cent. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  appearance  of  tuberculosis  can 
be  only  briefly  described  here.  The  symptoms  become  of  diagnostic 
importance  only  when  they  are  conspicuous,  and  when  it  may  be 
assumed  that  the  affection  has  reached  an  advanced  stage.  Even  then 
they  are  not  trustworthy.  Highly  suspicious  symptoms  in  all  food 
animals  are  hard,  nodular  swellings  of  the  lymph  glands,  udder,  or 
testicles,  painless  exostosis  and  swellings  of  joints,  which  cannot  be 
attributed  to  other  causes,  coughing  and  difficulty  in  breathing,  with 
very  apparent  loss  of  flesh.  Hard,  tight  skin  and  a  rough  coat  of  hair, 
chronic  bloating,  hardening  of  the  udder,  and  dry  rattling  may  be  addi- 
tional indications  in  cattle.  The  symptoms  which  arouse  suspicion 
in  hogs — among  which  nutritive  disturbances  are  rare — are  principally 
exostosis  and  curvature  of  the  spine  without  rachitic  symptoms. 

Other  methods  for  diagnosticating  tuberculosis  in  the  live  animal 
(antemortem  inspection)  cannot  be  given  in  detail  here.  The  lesions 
present  in  the  slaughtered  animal  differ  in  the  various  species. 


268     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

In  cattle  tuberculosis  occurs  principally  in  two  different  forms,  which, 
however,  are  often  combined — namely,  tuberculosis  of  the  serous 
membranes  (pearly  disease)  and  tuberculosis  of  the  organs.  The  former 
begins  with  reddish,  soft,  granulation-like  proliferations,  from  which 
large  nodules  of  various  sizes  are  developed  (Figs.  110  and  111),  and 
which,  either  when  isolated  or  confluent,  show  a  tendency  to  become 
calcified  early.  Occasionally,  enormous  thick  fibrous  or  calcified 
tuberculous  deposits  are  formed  on  the  commonly  diseased  pleura 
and  pericardium.  Peritoneal  tuberculosis  is  somewhat  less  common. 


FIG.  110 


Small  nodular  tubercles  from  the  pleura  of  a  cow. 

Concerning  tuberculosis  of  the  organs  and  mucous  membranes, 
the  respiratory  apparatus  is  most  often  the  primary  seat  of  the  affec- 
tion (tuberculous  bronchial  pneumonia);  next  comes  the  digestive 
tract,  while  the  female  genital  organs  are  very  seldom  affected.  In 
the  lungs  there  are  now  and  then  cavities.  In  the  intestines  of  cattle 
the  result  is  occasionally  a  uniformly  marked  thickening  and  coarse 
wrinkling  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which  represents  a  diffused 


TUBERCULOSIS 


269 


epithelioid  infiltration  without  the  formation  of  nodules  (Johne  and 
Frothingham,  Rieck,  Markus,  Bongert  and  others),  and  in  which 
caseation  and  ulcerations  cannot  be  determined.1 

All  parts  of  the  body  may  be  secondarily  infected.  The  manifesta- 
tion of  the  disease  is  influenced  by  the  nature  and  the  mode  of  infection 
as  well  as  by  the  anatomical  structure  of  the  various  organs.  Lymph 
gland  tuberculosis  (Plate  III,  Fig.  2)  is  often  conspicuous  for  its  enor- 
mous development.  For  tuberculosis  of  the  udder,  compare  Plate  V. 


FIG.  Ill 


Large  nodular  tubercles  from  the  pleura  of  a  cow. 


Tuberculous  processes  in  cattle  tend  generally  toward  dry  caseation 
and  calcification.  Tuberculosis  of  any  organ  in  which  the  lesions  are 
softened  may  develop  into  generalized  tuberculosis;  the  latter  is  char- 


[l  Recently  it  has  been  satisfactorily  shown  by  Bang,  McFadyean  and  others  that  these  intestinal 
lesions  are  not  due  to  the  tubercle  bacillus,  but  to  a  somewhat  similar  acid-proof  bacillus  which  pro- 
duces this  hypertrophy  of  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane  to  which  the  names  of  Johne's  disease, 
chronic  pseudotuberculous  enteritis,  and  chronic  bacterial  dysentery  have  been  given.] 


270     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

acterized  in  young  animals  in  the  first  place  by  an  affection  of  the 
spleen;  in  older  animals  by  involvement  of  the  kidneys.  Tuberculosis 
of  the  bones  is  not  very  common;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  uncommon 
for  the  body  lymph  glands  to  become  diseased  without  accompaniment 
of  a  similar  affection  in  the  spleen  and  kidneys. 

Corresponding  to  the  transmission  of  the  disease  by  the  placenta, 
calves  very  frequently  manifest  embolic  tuberculosis  of  the  various 
organs;  first  of  all,  in  the  liver,  portal  glands,  lungs,  posterior  medias- 
tinum, spleen,  and  kidneys,  but  the  disease  may  also  result  and  spread 
by  infection  from  the  digestive  tract.  Generalization  occurs  in  a 
majority  of  cases. 

Tuberculosis,  although  comparatively  seldom  found  in  sheep,  pre- 
sents in  a  general  way  the  conditions  and  appearance  of  tuberculosis 
in  cattle.  Lesions  of  the  serous  membranes  occur  also,  although  they 
are  not  so  common  as  in  cattle.  Calcification  takes  place  at  a  com- 
paratively early  period. 

This  disease  appears  also  in  a  similar  form  in  goats,  in  which  pearly 
disease  and  lesions  in  the  lungs  of  a  similar  nature  to  those  found  in 
human  phthisis  (cavity  formation)  have  been  observed.  [Generalized 
tuberculosis  is  not  uncommon  among  sheep  and  goats  in  Germany, 
but  is  extremely  rare  among  these  species  in  the  United  States.] 

In  hogs,  tuberculous  affections  occur  most  frequently  in  the  digestive 
tract  from  which  secondary  infection  of  the  various  organs  takes  place, 
especially  in  the  liver  and  lungs.  Very  often  a  generalized  tubercu- 
losis results,  which  is  characterized  by  tuberculosis  of  the  spleen  in  the 
majority  of  cases.  Primary  respiratory  tuberculosis  is  less  common 
than  in  cattle,  while  lesions  of  the  serous  membranes  are  even  more 
rare.  Calcification  in  the  tuberculous  foci  begins  at  an  early  period. 
In  generalized  tuberculosis  the  lymph  glands  of  the  muscles  and  bones 
are  often  affected.  Junack  has  described  "tuberculosis  without  retro- 
gressive alterations  in  swine."  In  one  case  in  which  a  hog  became  so 
diseased,  the  condition  resembled  sarcomatosis. 

Tuberculosis  in  the  horse,  while  very  infrequently  observed,  resembles 
tuberculosis  in  cattle,  but  does  not  possess  a  tendency  to  calcify;  it 
does,  however,  tend  to  soften  at  the  centre.  The  formation  of  small 
fibrous  tubercles  is  not  uncommon.  The  lymph  glands  of  the  affected 
organs  become  considerably  hyperplastic.  Infection  spreads  principally 
from  the  lungs. 

The  general  appearance  of  tuberculosis  in  the  dog  suggests  the 
conditions  found  in  the  goat,  but  the  tuberculous  lesions  in  the  lungs 
and  lymph  glands  are  of  a  more  grayish-white  color,  similar  in  con- 
sistence to  bone  marrow.  Instead  of  caseation  there  is  degeneration 
into  grayish-white  decomposing  masses  which  resemble  whey. 

Postmortem  Examination. — In  carrying  out  the  general  method  of 
examination  at  the  postmortem  inspection  for  tuberculosis,  the  fol- 
lowing directions  should  be  observed : 

1.  All  lymph  glands  located  at  the  portal  of  entry  of  the  infection 
must  be  carefully  incised;  first  of  all  the  submaxillary  and  retro- 


TUBERCULOSIS  271 

pharyngeal  lymph  glands,  tonsils,  bronchial,  mediastinal,  mesenteric, 
and  portal  lymph  glands. 

2.  Cutting  into  plainly  visible  seats  of  tuberculous  infection,  espe- 
cially cavities,  should  be  avoided,  if  possible,  owing  to  the  dissemination 
of  tuberculous  material.    Contamination  of  the  meat  with  tuberculous 
material  must  also  be  carefully  guarded  against.     Soiled  knives  must 
be  used  only  after  boiling  in  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  soda. 

3.  In  an  animal  which  is  found  to  be  tuberculous,  the  parts  which 
are  least  often  affected  (lymph  glands  of  the  muscles,  spleen,  kidneys, 
udder,   bones)   should  be  examined  first.      Von  Stroh  records  some 
interesting  studies  concerning  the  prevalence  of  tuberculosis  of  the 
lymph  glands  of  the  muscles. 

Identification  of  the  common  forms  of  tuberculosis  is  not  difficult 
for  the  inspector  when  once  he  is  familiar  with  the  manifold  varia- 
tions in  the  form  of  development  of  tuberculous  processes  and  their 
metamorphosis.  The  lymph  glands,  as  has  repeatedly  been  emphasized, 
form  a  point  of  predilection  for  the  development  of  tubercle  bacilli, 
and  the  specific  condition  of  the  lymph  gland  is,  therefore,  of  special 
importance  for  diagnosis  (Plate  III,  Fig.  2).  The  condition  of  the 
lymphatic  glands  also  verifies  the  diagnosis  of  doubtful  affections  of 
organs,  since  it  may  generally  be  considered  that  at  least  one  of  the 
corresponding  glands  will  be  typically  affected  in  tuberculosis  of  the 
organs. 

It  need  not  be  emphasized  that  the  characteristic  conditions  of 
development  and  structure  of  tuberculous  granulations  from  the  most 
diminutive  transparent  grayish  nodules,  which  at  first  become  clouded 
at  the  centre,  after  which  they  degenerate,  together  with  the  tendency 
to  spread  to  the  surrounding  tissues  by  the  formation  of  secondary 
nodules,  are  also  indications  worthy  of  cognizance.  Ostertag  recom- 
mends a  microscopic  examination  (at  about  40  diameters)  of  a  crushed 
sample,  in  order  to  determine  with  certainty  the  character  of  doubtful 
nodules.  By  this  method  the  round  or  elongated  giant  cells  can  be 
plainly  seen;  these,  as.it  is  well  known,  are  especially  well  developed 
in  the  tubercles  of  domestic  animals.  This  method  is  also  said  to  be 
well  adapted  for  the  examination  of  lymph  glands  for  tuberculous 
foci,  which  cannot  be  determined  macroscopically;  they  appear  con- 
spicuous from  the  surrounding  normal  lymph-gland  tissue  by  disclosing 
round,  colony -like,  cloudy  spots,  with  giant  cells  in  the  centre  and 
epithelioid  cells  around  the  outside. 

It  is  self-evident  that  the  demonstration  of  the  presence  of  tubercle 
bacilli  also  serves  to  make  the  diagnosis  positive,  although  an  effort 
to  determine  their  presence  may  result  in  failure  even  in  genuine  tuber- 
culosis. It  has  been  experimentally  determined  that  in  strongly  caseated 
or  calcified  foci,  attempts  to  find  bacilli  often  fail,  especially  in  tuber- 
culosis of  swine.  Such  foci  are,  however,  infectious,  which  can  be 
proved  by  animal  experiment.  This,  however,  cannot  be  utilized 
for  practical  meat  inspection  on  account  of  the  delay  in  the  decision 
which  it  would  cause. 


272     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

Differential  Diagnosis.— The  following-named  conditions  may  be 
mistaken  for  tuberculous  lesions : 

1.  Degenerated  echinococci  and  measles  (pp.  244  and  247). 

2.  Actinomycotic  processes  (p.  278). 

3.  Pentastome  colonies  in  the  lymph  glands  (p.  243). 

4.  Strongyle  nodules  in  the  lung  of  sheep  (p.  235). 

5.  Lesions  of  hog  cholera  (p.  310). 

The  characteristic  indications  of  these  diseases  are  sufficiently 
discussed  under  their  respective  heads,  and  when  compared  with  the 
characteristic  pathological  peculiarities  of  tuberculosis  they  assure 
definite  results  in  diagnosis,  particularly  as  the  latter  is,  in  addition, 
based  on  the  appearance  of  the  lymph  glands  and  the  result  of  a  micro- 
scopic examination. 

Virulence  of  the  Tissues  of  Tuberculous  Animals. — In  testing 
the  question  as  to  the  extent  to  which  tuberculous  changes  in  food 
animals  may  become  dangerous  to  human  health  as  a  result  of  their 
utilization  as  food,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid  the  premise  that  the  tubercle 
bacillus  of  animals  is  identical  with  the  bacillus  which  causes  human 
tuberculosis.  As  tubercle  bacilli  entering  the  digestive  tract  of  man 
are  apt  to  produce  tuberculosis,  and  also  since  virulent  tubercle  bacilli 
are  found  in  the  tuberculous  parts  of  food  animals,  it  follows  that  all 
organs  and  parts  of  carcasses  which  are  tuberculous  must  be  regarded 
as  infectious  and  dangerous  to  human  health.  Animals  in  which  only 
the  lymph  glands  are  diseased  belong  in  this  category,  as  it  is  very 
possible  that  small,  virulent  tuberculous  foci  in  the  earliest  stage  of 
development  have  been  overlooked  at  the  macroscopic  examination 
of  the  parenchyma  of  the  organs.  This  fact  makes  it  self-evident 
that  tuberculous  organs  must  be  considered  as  totaly  unwholesome, 
even  when  only  a  few  scattered  lesions  may  apparently  occur  therein. 

In  regard  to  the  virulence  of  the  meat,  e.  g.,  the  striated  muscles, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  musculature  is  very  infrequently  the 
seat  of  tuberculous  processes,  that,  as  a  rule,  tubercle  bacilli  are  carried 
to  the  muscles  by  the  blood  only,  and  that  they  occur  in  the  blood 
rarely,  and  then  they  remain  in  the  circulation  only  for  a  short  period 
of  time. 

Numerous  experiments  in  feeding  and  inoculation  have  been  con- 
ducted on  animals  to  test  the  virulence  of  tuberculous  meat,  but,  as 
has  already  been  pointed  out  by  Ostertag,  the  dissemination  or  extent 
and  special  character  of  the  tuberculous  affection  in  the  animal,  from 
which  the  sample  of  muscle  was  taken,  were  entirely  disregarded. 
Ostertag  summarizes  the  results  of  these  experiments  by  saying  that 
"muscle  or  juice  of  muscle  from  tuberculous  animals  does  not,  as  a 
rule,  contain  any  or  not  sufficient  bacilli  to  produce  tuberculosis  in 
experimental  animals."  The  meat  is  infectious  only  in  the  most 
advanced  stage  of  tuberculosis,  and  when  suppurative  softening  of 
the  tuberculous  lesions  is  present.  In  connection  with  this  it  must 
also  be  recognized  that,  although  the  susceptibility  of  man  to  tuber- 
culosis is  assumed  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  experimental  animals, 
yet  the  number  of  bacilli  which  will  produce  tuberculosis  on  intra- 


TUBERCULOSIS  273 

peritoneal  inoculation  is  not  sufficient  to  produce  it  by  their  introduction 
into  the  digestive  tract,  and  that,  therefore,  a  positive  result  from 
inoculation  does  not  imply  that  the  meat  is  unwholesome  for  food. 
Even  the  most  recent  investigations  along  this  line  by  Hoefnagel, 
Westenhoeffer,  and  Swierstra,  in  which  the  condition  of  the  tuber- 
culous animal,  the  extent  of  the  affection,  and  the  nature  of  the 
tuberculous  processes  were  carefully  taken  into  consideration,  have 
corroborated  Ostertag's  view. 

The  results  of  the  experiments  regarding  the  blood  and  the  muscle 
juice  from  tuberculous  animals  should  be  considered  from  the  same 
standpoint. 

Notwithstanding  all  this,  it  must  be  remembered  that,  from  a  meat- 
inspection  standpoint,  muscle  is  not  the  only  form  of  meat  which  must 
be  considered,  and  that  the  term  "meat"  does  not  include  the  striated 
musculature  only.  It  also  includes  other  constituents  of  meat,  such 
as  the  lymph  glands  and  bones  which  are  not  uncommonly  affected 
by  tuberculosis  when  the  disease  has  become  generalized  in  the  body. 
Precaution  is  therefore  necessary  in  judging  generalized  tuberculosis. 

In  the  utilization  of  meat  from  tuberculous  animals,  the  fact  that 
the  tubercle  bacilli  possess  only  a  small  degree  of  resistance  to  high 
grades  of  temperature  is  of  great  importance  to  national  economy. 
According  to  Bang,  85°  C.  for  a  period  of  ten  minutes  will  suffice  to 
kill  tubercle  bacilli,  while  Yersin  and  Forster  give  70°  to  75°  C.  at  ten 
minutes  as  sufficient.  On  this  is  based  the  utilization  of  the  meat 
of  tuberculous  animals  after  cooking.  Tubercle  bacilli  are  very  resistant 
to  pickling  and  to  smoking  and  pickling. 

Judgment. — In  the  judgment  of  tuberculous  lesions  of  food  animals 
by  the  veterinary  inspector  in  connection  with  their  harmfulness  to 
man,  the  points  to  be  considered  are  the  extent  of  the  affection  and 
stage  of  development,  the  age  and  nature  of  the  tuberculous  changes, 
and  the  nutritive  condition  of  the  animal. 

In  general  a  poor  nutritive  condition,  especially  extreme  emaciation, 
will  influence  the  judgment  unfavorably. 

The  same  is  also  true  regarding  the  age  of  the  tuberculous  lesions 
when  fresh  disease  processes  exist,  and  especially  when  the  latter  are 
contiguous  to  the  old  infections  A  fresh  "blood  infection"  (fresh 
generalized  condition,  acute  miliary  tuberculosis  in  the  most  restricted 
sense)  is  present  only  when  the  spleen  or  the  lymph  glands  are  swollen, 
or  when  very  small  tubercles,  not  over  the  size  of  a  milletseed,  which 
have  been  disseminated  through  the  large  circulatory  system,  are 
present.  Fresh  blood  infection,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  seldom  found  in 
food  animals,  demands  careful  examination  and  consideration. 

Precaution  is  recommended  owing  to  the  nature  of  tuberculous 
materials  in  the  soft  tuberculous  processes  (cavities  and  purulent 
cheesy  abscesses),  as  a  generalized  condition  is  frequently  associated 
with  them.  In  regard  to  the  extension  of  tuberculosis,  the  forms 
mentioned  on  page  266  should  be  clearly  distinguished. 

The  judgment  of  individual  cases  of  tuberculosis  must  proceed 
according  to  the  following  outline,  which  has  been  made  public  in  con- 
18 


274      INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

nection  with  the  meat-inspection  regulations  for  the  guidance  of  non- 
veterinary  inspectors.  Owing  to  the  comprehensive  character  of  this 
manual  it  has  been  deemed  necessary  to  add  explanatory  notes  giving 
the  reasons  on  which  the  outline  is  based. 


Outline  Showing  the  Forms  of  Tuberculosis  in  Food  Animals,  and  Disposal  of 
the  Meat  of  Tuberculous  Animals. 


Forms  of  tuberculosis. 

I.  Tuberculosis  of  one  organ : 

(a)  With  extreme  emaciation. 
(6)   Not  extremely  emaciated. 


II.  Tuberculosis  which  is  not  confined  to 
one  organ: 

1.  In  which  infection  was  not  spread  by 

the  large  circulatory  system. 

A.  With  extreme  emaciation. 

B.  Not  extremely  emaciated. 

(a)  With  extensive  softened  lesions. 

(6)  Without  extensive  softened  le- 
sions: 

1.  When    the    disease    is    only 

slightly  extended. 

2.  When  the  disease  is  greatly 

extended. 

2.  In  which  infection  was  spread  by  the 

large  circulatory  system. 

A.  Manifestations  of  a  fresh  blood  in- 

fection. 

(a)  With  extreme  emaciation. 
(6)  Without  extreme  emaciation: 

1.  Fresh  infection  in  the  viscera 

or  in  the  udder  only. 

2.  Fresh  infection  not  confined 

only  to  the  viscera  or  in 
the  udder. 

B.  Without  the  manifestation  of  fresh 

blood  infection, 
(a)  With  extreme  emaciation. 
'  (fc)  Without  extreme  emaciation: 

1.  With  extensive  softened   le- 

sions: 

2.  Without    extensive   softened 

lesions. 

(a')  Tuberculous  changes  ex- 
ist in   the  viscera   or 
in  the  udder  only: 
(a")  When  the  disease  is 
only  slightly  ex- 
tended. 

(&")   When  the  disease  rs 

greatly  extended. 

(6')  Tuberculous  changes  not 

confined  to  viscera  and 

udder  only. 

(a")  When  the  disease  is 
only  slightly  ex- 
tended. 

(&")  When  the  disease  is 
greatly  extended. 


Disposal  of  the  meat 


Whole  carcass  unfit  for  food. 
Parts  not  changed  are  unconditionally  fit  for 
food. 


Whole  carcass  unfit  for  food. 

Parts   not   changed   conditionally   fit   for   food 
(Freibank). 


The  parts  not  changed   are  unconditionally  fit 

for  food. 
The  parts  not  changed  are  fit  for  food,   but 

materially  reduced  in  value  (Freibank). 


The  whole  carcass  in  unfit  for  food. 

Unchanged  parts  are  conditionally  fit  for  food 

(Freibank). 
Fat  is  conditionally  fit  for  food;  meat  is  unfit 

for  food. 


Whole  carcass  unfit  for  food. 

Unchanged     parts     are     conditionally    fit     for 
food  (Freibank). 


Unchanged    parts    are    unconditionally    fit    for 
food. 

Unchanged  parts  are  fit  for  food,  but  materially 

reduced  in  value  (Freibank). 
Of  the  unchanged  parts,  quarters  of  a  carcass 

which    contain   a   tuberculous    lymph    gland 

are  conditionally  fit  for  food   (Freibank). 
The  other  unchanged  parts  are  unconditionally 

fit  for  food. 

Fit  for  food,  but  materially  reduced  in  value 
(Freibank). 


TUBERCULOSIS  275 

Remarks. — The  changed  parts  under  I  b,  II  1  B,  II  2  A  b  1,  and 
II  2  B  b  of  the  table  are  unfit  for  food. 

An  organ  must  be  regarded  as  tuberculous  even  when  only  the  correspond- 
ing lymph  glands  of  that  organ  show  tuberculous  changes;  a  similar  position 
must  be  taken  with  regard  to  pieces  of  meat  which  have  not  been  shown  to  be 
free  from  tuberculosis  by  careful  inspection. 

In  regard  to  tuberculosis  of  individual  organs  the  rule  is  that  the 
whole  organ  should  be  always  condemned  when  its  corresponding 
glands  show  tuberculous  changes. 

When  the  mesenteric  lymph  glands  are  affected  a  distinction  must 
be  made  between  those  of  the  small  and  large  intestines,  and  the  respec- 
tive intestines  to  which  the  affected  group  of  lymph  glands  belong 
must  be  condemned.  The  mesentery  with  the  diseased  glands  may 
be  permitted  to  be  utilized  for  technical  purposes  after  it  has  been 
thoroughly  denatured. 

When  the  submaxillary  and  retropharyngeal  lymph  glands  are 
diseased  they  must  be  removed,  together  with  the  surrounding  parts, 
including  the  tonsils;  however,  no  other  parts  of  the  head  need  be 
condemned,  as  these  lymph  glands  become  infected  almost  exclusively 
from  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  mouth,  nose,  and  pharyngeal 
orifice,  none  of  which  are  used  for  food  in  Germany. 

Relative  to  the  judgment  of  a  tuberculous  "  quarter,"  that  part 
of  the  body  is  considered  infected  which  corresponds  to  the  region 
drained  by  the  diseased  body  lymph  glands.  However,  in  case  of 
tuberculosis  of  the  vertebrae,  ribs,  or  sternum,  when  the  cause  of  the 
affection  in  the  lymph  glands  can  be  traced  to  the  respective  bones, 
it  will  not  be  necessary  to  condemn  the  more  posterior  draining  region 
of  the  lymph  gland,  but  the  altered  bones  and  glands  only  need  be 
condemned.  The  judgment  of  the  remaining  part  of  the  carcass  should 
naturally  depend  on  the  presence  of  other  lesions.  When  tuberculosis 
of  the  bones  is  suspected,  especially  in  hogs,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
remove  the  meat  from  the  bones  and  to  split  the  latter. 

In  removing  tuberculous  parts,  especially  serous  membranes,  attention 
is  called  to  the  necessity  of  removing  the  associated  lymph  glands  and 
the  other  parts  adjoining  them.  In  order  to  remove  satisfactorily  the 
small  lymph  glands  to  which  access  is  difficult,  it  is  advisable  to  remove 
the  surrounding  parts  of  meat  and  bone  with  them.  The  veterinary 
inspector  must  do  this  himself  or  see  that  it  is  done  under  his  immediate 
supervision.  In  this  operation  one  should  not  go  to  an  extreme  by 
removing  more  meat  than  is  absolutely  under  suspicion  of  being  tuber- 
culous. In  all  this  work  care  must  be  taken  not  to  contaminate  sound 
meat  with  tuberculous  material ;  also,  special  attention  should  be  given 
to  changing  knives,  saws,  etc.,  which  are  soiled  with  tuberculous  material. 

Veal  from  calves  which  were  vaccinated  with  protective  tuberculosis  vaccine 
(for  example,  Bovovaccine  and  Tauruman)  contains  virulent  tubercle  bacilli 
for  several  months  after  the  inoculation;  owing  to  this  fact,  several  States  have 
issued  regulations  permitting  the  use  of  such  meat  only  after  cooking. 


276     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

[The  judgment  of  tuberculous  carcasses  of  food  animals  in  the  United 
States  varies  somewhat  from  that  adopted  in  Germany.  While  it 
would  appear  that  the  condemnations  from  the  extent  of  the  lesions 
are  stricter  in  this  country,  and  that  affected  carcasses  which  would 
pass  conditionally  in  Germany  are  condemned  in  this  country,  yet 
the  difference  in  the  judgment  of  tuberculosis  is  principally  due  to  the 
fact  that  no  provisions  are  made  in  the  United  States  by  which  cer- 
tain affected  carcasses  could  be  passed  conditionally  for  food  (after 
sterilization),  as  the  "Freibank  system"  has  never  been  established  in 
this  country.  On  the  other  hand,  the  regulations  governing  meat 
inspection  in  the  United  States  permit  tuberculous  carcasses  which 
are  conditionally  passed  for  food  in  Germany  to  be  passed  for  lard 
and  tallow  in  this  country;  such  carcasses,  however,  have  to  be  sub- 
jected to  a  temperature  of  220°  F.  for  not  less  than  four  hours. 

In  the  following  section,  the  requirements  for  the  disposition  of 
tuberculous  carcasses  are  given,  in  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150: 

SECTION  13.  Paragraph  1.  The  following  principles  are  declared  for  guidance 
in  passing  on  carcasses  affected  with  tuberculosis : 

Principle  A. — The  fundamental  thought  is  that  meat  should  not  be  used 
for  food  if  it  contains  tubercle  bacilli,  if  there  is  a  reasonable  possibility  that 
it  may  contain  tubercle  bacilli,  or  if  it  is  impregnated  with  toxic  substances  of 
tuberculosis  or  associated  septic  infections. 

Principle  B. — On  the  other  hand,  if  the  lesions  are  localized  and  not  numer- 
ous, if  there  is  no  evidence  of  distribution  of  tubercle  bacilli  through  the  blood, 
or  by  other  means,  to  the  muscles  or  to  parts  that  may  be  eaten  with  the  muscles, 
and  if  the  animal  is  well  nourished  and  in  good  condition,  there  is  no  proof 
or  even  reason  to  suspect  that  the  flesh  is  unwholesome. 

Principle  C. — Evidences  of  generalized  tuberculosis  are  to  be  sought  in 
such  distribution  and  number  of  tuberculous  lesions  as  can  be  explained 
only  upon  the  supposition  of  the  entrance  of  tubercle  bacilli  in  considerable 
number  into  the  systemic  circulation.  Significant  of  such  generalization  are 
the  presence  of  numerous  uniformly  distributed  tubercles  throughout  both 
lungs,  also  tubercles  in  the  spleen,  kidneys,  bones,  joints,  and  sexual  glands, 
and  in  the  lymphatic  glands  connected  with  these  organs  and  parts,  or  in  the 
splenic,  renal,  prescapular,  popliteal,  and  inguinal  glands,  when  several  of 
these  organs  and  parts  are  coincidentally  affected. 

Principle  D. — By  localized  tuberculosis  is  understood  tuberculosis  limited 
to  a  single  or  several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  without  evidence  of  recent 
invasion  of  numerous  bacilli  into  the  systemic  circulation. 

Paragraph  2.  The  following  rules  shall  govern  the  disposal  of  meat  of  tuber- 
culous animals: 

Rule  A. — The  entire  carcass  shall  be  condemned — 

^(a)  When  it  was  observed  before  the  animal  was  killed  that  it  was  suffering 
with  fever. 

(6)  When  there  is  a  tuberculous  or  other  cachexia,  as  shown  by  anemia 
and  emaciation. 

(c)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  generalized,  as  shown  by  their 
presence  not  only  at  the  usual  seats  of  primary  infection,  but  also  in  parts  of  the 
carcass  or  the  organs  that  may  be  reached  by  the  bacilli  of  tuberculosis  only 
when  they  are  carried  in  the  systemic  circulation.  Tuberculous  lesions  in 
any  two  of  the  following-mentioned  organs  are  to  be  accepted  as  evidence  of 
generalization  when  they  occur  in  addition  to  local  tuberculous  lesions  in  the 
digestive  or  respiratory  tracts,  including  the  lymphatic  glands  connected  there- 
with: Spleen,  kidney,  uterus,  udder,  ovary,  testicle,  adrenal  gland,  brain  or 


PSE  UDOT  UBERC  ULOSIS  277 

spinal  cord  or  their  membranes.     Numerous  uniformly  distributed  tubercles 
thorughout  both  lungs  also  afford  evidence  of  generalization. 

(d)  When  the  lesions  of  tuberculosis  are  found  in  the  muscles  or  intermuscular 
tissue  or  bones  or  joints  or  in  the  body  lymphatic  glands  as  a  result  of  draining 
the  muscles,  bones,  or  joints. 

(e)  When  the  lesions  are  extensive  in  one  or  both  body  cavities. 

(/)  When  the  lesions  are  multiple,  acute,  and  actively  progressive.  (Evidence 
of  active  progress  consists  in  signs  of  acute  inflammation  about  the  lesions,  or 
liquefaction  necrosis,  or  the  presence  of  young  tubercles.) 

Rule  B. — An  organ  or  a  part  of  a  carcass  shall  be  condemned — 

(a)  When  it  contains  lesions  of  tuberculosis. 

(6)  When  the  lesion  is  immediately  adjacent  to  the  flesh,  as  in  the  case  of 
tuberculosis  of  the  parietal  pleura  or  peritoneum,  not  only  the  membrane  or  part 
affected,  but  also  the  adjacent  thoracic  or  abdominal  wall  is  to  be  condemned. 

(c)  When  it  has  been  contaminated  by  tuberculous  material,  through  contact 
with  the  floor,  a  soiled  knife,  or  otherwise. 

(d)  Heads  showing  lesions  of  tuberculosis  shall  be  condemned,  unless  such 
lesions  are  confined  to  the  lymph  glands  and  are  slight,  calcified,  and  encap- 
sulated, in  which  case  the  heads  of  passed  carcasses  may  be  used  for  rendering 
into  edible  product. 

(e)  An  organ  shall  be  condemned  when  the  corresponding  lymphatic  gland 
is  tuberculous. 

Rule  C. — The  carcass,  if  the  tuberculous  lesions  are  limited  to  a  single  or 
several  parts  or  organs  of  the  body  (except  as  noted  in  Rule  A),  without  evidence 
of  recent  invasion  of  tubercle  bacilli  into  the  systemic  circulation,  shall  be 
passed  after  the  parts  containing  the  localized  lesions  are  removed  and  con- 
demned in  accordance  with  Rule  B. 

Rule  D. — Carcasses  which  reveal  lesions  more  numerous  than  those  described 
for  carcasses  to  be  passed  (Rule  C),  but  not  so  severe  as  the  lesions  described 
for  carcasses  to  be  condemned  (Rule  A),  may  be  rendered  into  lard  or  tallow 
if  the  distribution  of  the  lesions  is  such  that  all  parts  containing  tuberculous 
lesions  can  be  removed.  Such  carcasses  shall  be, cooked  by  steam  at  a  tem- 
perature not  lower  than  220  degrees  Fahrenheit  for  not  less  than  four  hours. 


PSEUDOTUBERCULOSIS 

As  pseudotuberculosis  are  designated  the  affections  which  run  their 
course  by  producing  nodules  similar  to  those  in  tuberculosis,  and  which, 
as  a  rule,  also  caseate,  but  which  are  not  caused  by  Koch's  tubercle 
bacillus.  Foreign  bodies,  cocci,  bacteria,  bacilli,  and  hyphomycetes, 
may  be  etiologically  involved.  However,  only  those  names  which 
are  etiologically  correct  are  at  present  used  in  connection  with  the 
tuberculous-like  processes  caused  by  animal  parasites,  which  were 
formerly  also  designated  as  tuberculosis. 

Frequency. — Among  food  animals  pseudotuberculous  processes  with 
conspicuous  caseation  or  premature  calcification  occur  most  frequently 
in  sheep.  They  have,  however,  been  found  in  cattle,  calves,  guinea- 
pigs,  rabbits,  and  chickens. 

In  sheep  the  disease  is  caused  by  the  Bacillus  pseudotuberculosis  ovis,  Preisz 
(Fig.  112),  which  appears  as  a  very  thin  immotile  rod,  and  which  stains  readily 
with  aqueous  aniline  dyes  and  by  Gram's  method;  the  bacilli  in  cultures  are 
both  thicker  and  longer,  developing  also  club  and  pear-shaped  forms  (Hutyra 
and  Marek). 


278     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

[In  this  country  the  disease  is  called  caseous  lymphadenitis,  and  is 
fully  described  by  Norgaard  and  Mohler  in  the  Seventeenth  Annual 
Report  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.] 

The  absence  of  giant  cells  and  epithelioid  cells,  according  to  Ostertag, 
is  of  importance  in  identifying  pseudotuberculous  alterations.     The 
dry,  caseated  pseudotuberculous  lesions  in  the  lymph  glands  are  char- 
acterized by  onion-like  layers  (Noack). 
-  112  An  attempt  should  also  be  made  to  estab- 

lish the  cause  of  the  processes.  It  may  be 
confused  with  tuberculosis  only,  but  this 
may  be  avoided  by  carefully  observing  the 
aforementioned  characteristics,  together 
with  those  changes  which  are  character- 
istic of  genuine  tuberculosis. 

Judgment. — All  parts  of  carcasses  per- 
meated with  pseudotuberculous  processes 
should  be  treated  as  unfit  for  food,  re- 
gardless of  the  form  of  infection,  whether 
it  is  of  primary,  secondary,  or  embolic 
nature.  Whether  or  not  the  whole  car- 
Hutyra  and  Marek.)  cass  shall  be  condemned  or  declared  of 

inferior  value  for  food  depends  upon  the 

condition  of  the  animal  and  the  character  of  the  meat.  Noack 
recommends  that  similar  action  be  taken  as  in  genuine  tuberculosis 
until  it  has  been  proved  that  man  is  not  susceptible  to  the  bacillus 
pseudotuberculosis. 

[The  judgment  of  carcasses  affected  with  pseudotuberculosis  is 
carried  out  in  this  country  on  the  same  lines  as  those  prescribed  for 
Germany.] 

ACTINOMYCOSIS 

The  ray  fungus  disease  is  caused  by  a  fission  fungus,  the  Actinomyces 
bo  vis  (Fig.  113),  or  Streptothrix  actinomyces,  and  is  a  disease  of  slow 
course,  which  occurs  in  cattle,  swine,  sheep,  and  horses,  as  well  as  in 
man.  It  is  characterized  by  the  formation  of  tumors,  connective- 
tissue  infiltrations  and  abscesses. 

Pathogenesis. — The  ray  fungus  can  enter  the  body  through  the 
digestive  or  respiratory  tracts  or  through  the  outer  skin.  After  enter- 
ing the  tissues  the  fungus  develops  a  nodule,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
which  an  inflammatory  area  and  a  granulation  zone  soon  arise.  Around 
this  centre  changes  will  then  occur,  which  consist  either  in  the  forma- 
tion of  connective-tissue  neoformations,  which  lead  to  induration  and 
hardening,  or  destruction  of  tissue  and  abscess  formation.  The  latter 
condition  occurs  especially  among  swine.  The  actinomycotic  growth 
in  domestic  animals  shows  chiefly  fibrous  characters,  but  occasionally 
a  myxofibromatous  consistence  may  also  appear.  Both  enclose  the 
above-mentioned  granulation  centre,  in  which  the  actinomyces  fungi  may 
be  recognized  macroscopically  as  fine-grained,  sulphur-yellow  bodies. 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  279 

Microscopically,  these  bodies  appear  to  be  greenish  and  of  a  char- 
acteristically radiated  structure,  but  when  calcified  they  are  somewhat 
darker  in  color. 

Metastatic  extensions  of  the  fungus  from  the  primary  lesion  may 
occur,  causing  generalization  in  other  parts  of  the  body;  but  this  is 
exceptionally  infrequent,  as  is  also  any  affection  of  the  lymphatic 
glands,  where  neither  purulence  nor  calcification  is  often  found  to 
occur. 

FIG.  113 


Actinomyces  bovis.    a,  X  200  diameters;  b,  X  500  diameters.     (After  Johne.) 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  cattle  the  chief  symptoms  are  hard 
tumor-like  distentions  of  the  jaw  bones,  at  which  points  red,  sarco- 
matous-like  proliferations  may  break  out  through  the  skin.  Such 
tumors  may  also  occur  in  the  region  of  the  parotid  glands,  on  the  cheeks, 
the  lips,  and  more  rarely  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  tongue 
changes  to  be  described  later,  while  occurring  much  more  frequently 
than  the  affection  of  the  jaw,  are  noticed  only  in  the  most  severe  cases 
during  the  life  of  the  animal,  or  when  the  animal  is  noticeably  troubled 
in  taking  up  its  food.  The  latter  condition  will  gradually  lead  to  the 
emaciation  of  the  animal,  although  its  general  health  is  undisturbed. 
In  swine  the  most  common  indication  of  actinomycosis  consists  in 
nodular  growths  and  cold  abscesses  within  the  udder.  The  first  may 
also  be  accompanied  by  ulcerations  or  fistulous  formations.  Larger 
tumors  are  comparatively  rare.  Small  actinomycotic  nodules  may 
be  observed  at  the  seat  of  castration,  both  in  male  and  female  hogs. 
In  other  food  animals,  actinomycotic  affections  are  very  rarely  recog- 
nized during  life. 

In  slaughtered  cattle,  the  most  frequent  seat  of  the  disease  is  the 
tongue,  the  actinomycotic  affection  starting,  as  a  rule,  in  the  transverse 


280     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

groove  (Fig.  114).  In  and  around  this  location  little  nodules  may 
arise,  scattered  about  in  the  mucous  membrane.  Whenever  these 
growths  permeate  the  lingual  muscles,  inflammation  results,  which 
affects  chronically  the  intermuscular  connective  tissues  and  leads  to 


FIG.  114 


Actinomycotic  ulcer  on  the  dorsum  of  the  tongue  of  cattle.     (After  Hutyra  and  Marek.) 

enlargement  and  hardening  of  the  organ  (wooden  tongue).  On  the 
surface  of  the  tongue  actinomycotic  erosions  and  fungiform  prominences 
may  develop.  Similar  alterations  may  also  occur  upon  the  cheeks  and 
gums. 

FIG.  115 


Frontal  section  through  the  nose  and  superior  maxilla  of  cattle  with  an  actinomycotic  growth:  a, 
nodules  consisting  of  connective  tissue,  bone,  and  small  suppurative  foci.  One-quarter  of  the  natural 
size.  (After  Ziegler.) 

The  changes  in  the  jaw  bones  usually  result  from  the  entrance  of  the 
fungus  alongside  the  teeth,  and  often  lead  to  considerable  swelling 
and  deformities  (Fig.  115).  The  infrequently  occurring  actinomycotic 
changes  in  other  mucous  membranes  and  viscera  appear  as  pedunculated 
tumors  (in  the  buccal  cavity,  esophagus,  and  stomachs),  or  as  nodular 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  281 

tumors,  which  through  myxomatous  infiltrations  may  reach  great  dimen- 
sions, especially  in  the  lungs. 

In  the  udder  the  changes  occur  as  nodular  growths  or  as  diffuse 
indurative  inflammations  in  conjunction  with  the  growths.  Actino- 
mycosis  of  the  skin  is  seen  principally  on  the  head  and  neck  in  the 
form  of  tumors,  or  as  diffused  bacon-like  infiltrations.  Pieroni  found 
actinomycotic  changes  in  the  dura  mater  and  the  occipital  bone. 

As  previously  mentioned,  actinomycosis  of  swine  appears  most 
frequently  as  a  disease  of  the  mammae,  manifested  either  by  nodules 
with  skin  erosions,  or  by  cold  abscesses  with  or  without  fistulous  forma- 
tions. Extensive  infiltrations  are  comparatively  rare  in  these  parts. 
The  lesions  at  the  places  of  castration  are  mostly  nodular.  Actino- 
mycotic changes  in  the  fauces  are  relatively  rare  (Johne);  likewise 
abscesses  in  the  region  of  the  throat  and  on  the  other  parts  of  the  skin. 

Actinomycosis  has  been  found  in  the  lungs,  muscles,  and  on  the 
lips  and  tongues  of  slaughtered  sheep. 

The  cases  of  actinomycosis  of  the  horse  are  limited  to  a  few  observa- 
tions of  the  disease  in  the  spermatic  cord,  lymph  glands,  bones,  tongue, 
and  generalized  affections. 

Diagnosis  is  not  difficult  if  attention  is  given  to  the  pathological 
characteristics  mentioned  above.  The  scattered  yellowish  granules 
are  to  be  especially  noted  in  the  growths,  the  microscopic  examination 
of  which  assures  a  diagnosis.  This  may  be  a  difficult  undertaking 
where  degeneration  of  the  actinomyces  fungi  has  become  established, 
but  in  food  animals  this  condition  does  not  often  occur.  The  fungi 
stain  readily  with  Gram's  stain  and  with  picrocarmine. 

Actinomycotic  tumors  may  be  mistaken  for  various  other  growths, 
especially  for  tuberculous  nodules,  when  the  characteristic  structure 
of  the  actinomycotic  tumors  is  not  considered,  and  besides  when  in- 
sufficient attention  is  paid  to  the  condition  of  the  lymph  glands. 

Judgment. — Although  actinomycosis  may  at  times  affect  man 
dangerously,  no  instance  has  been  observed  of  a  direct  transmission 
of  the  fungus  to  people,  either  from  living  or  slaughtered  animals. 
Actinomycotic  tissues  should  be  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  food 
on  account  of  their  decidedly  abnormal  consistence.  This  disposition 
should  be  made  of  the  entire  organ  wherever  multiple  local  infection 
has  occurred.  In  cases  of  generalized  actinomycosis  the  entire  carcass 
should  be  carefully  examined  on  account  of  the  atypical  course  of 
such  generalization,  and  the  parts  showing  actinomycotic  changes  should 
be  condemned. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  11, 
Paragraphs  1  to  3,  carcasses  affected  with  generalized  actinomycosis 
should  be  condemned;  in  case  the  affection  has  not  extended  from  the 
primary  area  of  infection  and  is  confined  to  the  head,  the  carcass  is 
passed  for  food  while  the  head  and  tongue  are  condemned.  If  but 
slight  lesions  of  actinomycosis  are  observed  in  the  oral  cavity  in  the 
form  of  abrasions  on  the  transverse  furrow  of  the  dorsum  of  the  tongue, 
the  inner  surface  of  the  cheek,  or  on  the  palate,  the  parts  may  be  passed 


282     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING 'ANIMALS 

provided  there  is  no  involvement  of  the  bone  or  of  adjacent  lymph 
glands,  and  the  abrasions  are  cut  away  and  condemned.  Where  the 
lesions  are  uncomplicated  and  localized  the  infected  organ  or  parts 
are  condemned,  while  the  carcass  is  passed  for  food.] 

Actinobacillosis,  which  has  been  found  by  Lignieres  and  Spitz,  in  the  cattle 
and  occasionally  in  the  sheep  of  Argentine  is  not  of  importance  to  the  German 
inspector  or  meats.1 

BOTRYOMYCOSIS 

Botryomycosis  is  a  chronic,  tumor-like,  connective-tissue  prolifera- 
tion, caused  by  the  Botryococcus  ascoformans,  Kitt.     It  grows  in  the 
form  of  spherical  or  grape-like  colonies  (Fig.  116),  which  soon  are  sur- 
rounded by  hyaline  capsules.     These  clumps 
Fia-  116  of  round  microorganisms  were  called  Botryo- 

myces  by  Bollinger;  Biscomyces  equi  by  Rivolta; 
Micrococcus  ascoformans  by  Johne,  and  Micro- 
coccus  botryogenus  by  Rabe.  This  disease  occurs 
almost  exclusively  in  horses,  but  it  has  also 
been  observed  in  cattle  and  hogs  in  isolated 
cases. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  characteristic 
lesions  are  fibrous  nodules  and  tumors,  with 
Colony  of  botryomyces.   (After    softened  yellowish-brown  areas  in  the  centre, 
Rabe.)  in  which  small  sand-like  granules  of  a  yellowish- 

white  color  are  found .    The  latter  are  composed 

of  grape-shaped,  conglomerate,  closely  adherent  clumps  of  botryococci. 
The  most  common  site  of  these  nodules  in  the  horse  is  the  subcutis 
and  spermatic  cord,  but  they  may  also  occur  in  the  udder,  ribs,  muscles, 
and  on  the  pleura.  Guenther,  Czokor,  Immelmann,  and  Reali  have 
also  reported  botryomycosis  in  cattle,  while  Wilbrandt  and  Schneide- 
muhl  have  found  it  in  the  hog.  A  generalization  of  the  disease  has 
been  variously  observed. 

The  disease  is  recognized  by  microscopic  examination  of  the  granules, 
which  stain  with  all  the  basic  aniline  stains,  thereby  avoiding  confusion 
with  other  infectious  granulomata,  such  as  actinomycosis  and  glanders, 
Judgment. — All  parts  affected  with  botryomycotic  processes  are  to  be 
condemned  as  unfit  for  food  and  destroyed.  [See  B.  A.  I.  Order  150, 
Regulation  13,  Section  23.] 

ANTHRAX 

Anthrax,  which  occurs  in  all  food-producing  animals,  in  game,  and 
in  fowls,  is  caused  by  the  Bacillus  anthracis.  The  hog  and  dog  are 
somewhat  resistant  to  infection,  but  anthrax  infection  has  been 
definitively  demonstrated  in  them. 

f1  In  Canada  this  disease  has  been  reported  in  cattle,  and  recently  a  case  of  actinobacillosis  was 
observed  in  a  hog  in  this  country.] 


ANTHRAX 


283 


Bacteriology. — The  anthrax  bacilli  (Figs.  117  and  118)  measure  1.5  to  3 
microns  in  length,  1  to  1.5  microns  in  width,  with  slightly  convex  or  perfectly 
square  ends.  They  form  obtusely  angular  chains,  reaching  a  maximum  of  10 
microns  in  length.  The  anthrax  bacilli  are  immotile,  and  those  taken  from  the 
blood  are  surrounded  by  a  characteristic,  capsular,  or  gelatinous  membrane, 
by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  other  similarly  formed,  bacteria.  The 
anthrax  bacillus  grows  only  in  the  presence  of  oxygen  and  forms  spores  (Fig. 
118);  the  latter,  however,  never  form  in  the  live  animal  body  or  in  the  intact 
cadaver.  The  best  way  to  prepare  suspected  material  (spleen  pulp)  for  ship- 
ment and  bacteriological  examination  is  by  careful  slow  drying  of  thick  smears 
on  glass  slides  or  on  the  inner  surface  of  test-tubes  (Bongert  and  Hosang); 
or  perhaps  better  still,  by  the  Forster  plaster-of-Paris  rod  method  (Marxer, 
Jacobsthal  and  Pfersdorff,  Eberle,  Dausel). 


FIG.  Hi 


FTG.  118 


Anthrax  bacilli  with  stained 
capsules. 


Anthrax  bacilli  containing  spores.  Agar  culture 
eight  hours  old.  Stained  by  fuchsin.  (After 
Hutyra  and  Marek.) 


Staining  of  the  Anthrax  Bacilli  with  their  Capsules. — After  Luepke:  Slightly 
boil  the  cover-glass  preparation  with  a  0.2  per  cent,  gentian  violet  solution; 
rinse  thoroughly  with  water.  After  Johne:  Stain  in  hot  2  per  cent,  gentian 
violet  solution;  wash  in  water;  decolorize  for  ten  to  twenty  seconds  in  2  per 
cent,  acetic  acid;  wash  in  water.  After  Klett:  Boil  in  alcoholic  methylene  blue 
solution  (1  to  10  alcohol  to  100  water);  wash  in  water;  stain  in  alcoholic  solution 
of  fuchsin  (1  to  10  alcohol  to  100  water);  wash.  After  Olt:  Heat  the  cover-glass 
over  a  flame  after  applying  a  3  per  cent,  aqueous  safranin  solution;  wash  in 
water.  After  Raebiger:  Air-dried  cover-glass  preparations  are  stained  cold 
with  formalin-gentian  violet  (150  grams,  40  per  cent,  formalin,  with  15  to  20 
grams  gentian  violet)  for  twenty  seconds;  wash  in  water. 

Pathogenesis. — The  anthrax  bacilli,  or  their  spores,  enter  either 
through  injuries  of  the  skin  or  through  the  digestive  apparatus  into 
the  body.  Only  the  spores  are  effective  by  the  latter  method.  Infec- 
tion by  way  of  the  air  passages,  which  occurs  in  man,  is  exceedingly 
rare  in  animals.  From  the  point  of  inoculation  the  bacilli  enter  the 
blood,  where  they  multiply  rapidly,  and  through  their  toxins  produce 
a  severe  febrile  affection. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  vary  considerably, 
according  to  the  point  of  infection,  species  of  animals,  and  individuals, 
and  they  may  be  entirely  overlooked  in  abortive  cases  (apoplectiform 
anthrax).  Otherwise,  characteristic  symptoms  are  the  sudden  appear- 


284     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

ance  of  the  disease,  the  rapid  course,  high  fever,  general  severe  con- 
stitutional symptoms,  hemorrhages  into  the  mucous  membranes, 
bloody  discharges,  cerebral  or  pulmonary  congestions,  colic  and  drying 
up  of  milk  secretion  in  lactating  animals.  In  some  cases  there  may 
be  present  visible  localizations,  such  as  carbuncle  and  edema  of  the 
skin  (especially  in  cattle  and  horses)  and  mucous  membranes  (espe- 
cially of  the  tongue,  termed  gloss  anthrax);  also  edema  of  the  neck 
in  hogs. 

The  most  important  pathological  finding  is  the  swollen  spleen, 
whose  pulp  is  blackish  red  and  of  a  fluid  consistence.  In  the  hog  and 
horse,  exceptionally  also  in  emergency  slaughtered  cattle,  enlarge- 
ment of  the  spleen  may  be  slight  or  absent.  Further,  there  occurs 
cloudy  swelling  of  the  heart,  liver,  and  kidneys,  with  venous  stasis  or 
formation  of  hemorrhagic  infarcts  and  petechial  hemorrhages.  The 
latter  may  occur  on  any  part  of  the  body,  especially  beneath  the  peri- 
cardium and  pleura.  Marked  stasis  in  the  mesenteric,  intestinal, 
and  hepatic  veins  is  present,  with  brownish-red  discoloration  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  abomasum  and  intestinal  walls,  in  which 
hemorrhages  may  occur;  bloody  infiltration  of  the  mucous  membranes 
of  the  small  intestines,  and  to  a  less  degree  of  the  colon  mucosa  is 
observed.  Pulmonary  edema  and  marked  cervical  edema,  especially 
in  hogs,  may  be  noted,  and  also  yellowish  gelatinous  and  bloody  infiltra- 
tions of  the  subcutis,  with  engorged  veins  of  the  skin  and  muscles. 
The  majority  of  the  lymphatic  glands  are  strikingly  edematous,  hyper- 
emic,  and  show  bloody  extravasations.  Rigor  mortis  is  absent.  The 
blood  is  not  coagulated,  and  is,  as  a  rule,  dark  to  black  red  (tar-like). 
There  occur  cases,  however,  which  run  a  rapid  course  in  which  the 
color  of  the  blood  is  not  materially  changed. 

The  unopened  cadaver  rapidly  becomes  distended,  and  discharges 
mixed  with  blood  will  flow  from  the  natural  body  openings;  in  the 
body  cavities  a  blood-stained  serous  fluid  will  be  found. 

The  recognition  of  anthrax  is  based  on  careful  consideration  of  the 
pathological  findings  and  the  microscopic  examination  of  stained 
cover-glass  preparations  made  from  the  splenic  pulp,  the  lymph  of  the 
mesenteric  glands,  the  blood  of  the  veins  of  the  skin,  or  from  the  edema- 
tously  infiltrated  portions  of  the  subcutis.  In  doubtful  cases  test 
inoculations  and  culture  growths  for  the  demonstration  of  the  bacilli 
will  be  effective;  but  these  cannot  be  considered  at  this  point.  It  might 
be  emphasized,  however,  that  the  plate  method  (Fig.  119)  is  the  best 
and  safest  for  the  bacteriological  diagnosis  of  anthrax  (Kitt,  Bongert, 
Hosang,  Kaesewurm). 

For  differential  diagnosis  must  be  considered:  Blackleg,  malignant 
edema,  hemorrhagic  septicemia,  septic  diseases,  petechial  fever,  certain 
intoxications,  overfeeding  of  cattle  after  long  transportation,  and 
erysipelas  in  hogs.  For  a  description  of  the  particular  characteristics 
of  these  diseases,  as  compared  with  the  symptoms  of  anthrax  as  well 
as  the  differentiating  characteristics  of  some  of  the  microorganisms 
of  these  diseases,  the  reader  is  referred  elsewhere. 


ANTHRAX 


285 


.  119 


Partial  splenic  enlargement  (infarcts)  resulting  from  emboli  is  char- 
acterized by  firm  consistency  of  the  swollen  parts.  A  very  large  splenic 
tumor,  involving  the  entire  organ,  has  been  observed  in  the  hog  as  a 

result  of  torsion.  A  con- 
fusion  of  cadaver  bacilli 
with  anthrax  bacilli  is  ex- 
cluded in  the  light  of  our 
recent  staining  technique, 
and  upon  careful  study 
of  the  two  species  (Figs. 
117  and  120),1  Kaesewurm 
has  called  attention  to  a 


Fio.  120 


Superficial  colony  of  the  Bacillus  anthracis  in  a  24-hour-old 
agar  plate  culture.     X  50  diameters. 


Cadaver  bacilli.     X  500 
diameters. 


pseudoanthrax  bacillus  which  also  forms  colonies  composed  of  bundles 
of  wavy,  tangled  filaments. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  affected  with  anthrax  should  be 
considered  injurious  as  food,  and  is  to  be  condemned  and  destroyed. 
The  latter  is  effected  by  the  veterinary  police;  every  case  of  anthrax 
or  suspected  anthrax  is,  according  to  the  regulations,  to  be  reported 
immediately  to  the  local  police  authorities. 

Meat  suspected  of  having  been  only  superficially  soiled  with  anthrax  bacilli, 
which  may  occur  in  the  case  of  an  animal  infected  with  anthrax  being  slaughtered 
in  an  abattoir  with  other  animals,  may  be  utilized  for  food  after  having  been 
sterilized  with  steam. 

If  on  antemortem  inspection  an  animal  be  suspected  of  having 
anthrax,  slaughtering  is  to  be  forbidden,  and  the  necessary  measures 
should  be  taken  to  prevent  its  spread  to  man  or  to  animals  and  to  arrest 
further  dissemination  of  the  infectious  material. 

If  a  slaughtered  animal  be  found  diseased,  all  parts  thereof  are  to 
be  confiscated  and  left  to  the  disposition  of  the  veterinary  authorities. 
Persons  engaged  in  the  slaughter  of  the  animal  or  in  handling  it  in 
any  way  are  to  be  carefully  examined  for  probable  infection  wounds 
on  hands  or  arms. 

['  McFadyean  has  recently  described  a  peculiar  staining  reaction  of  anthrax  bacilli  which  is  specific. 
Smear  preparations  are  stained  for  a  few  seconds  with  a  1  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  methylene 
blue;  the  amorphous  material  around  and  between  the  bacilli  appears  violet  or  reddish  purple,  while 
the  bacilli  and  cell  nuclei  are  blue.] 


286     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

The  fact  that  much  anthrax  meat  has  been  eaten  without  any  harm  to  man 
is  explained  by  the  loss  of  vitality  of  the  bacilli  (not  of  the  spores,  however) 
in  the  intestinal  tract,  where,  as  a  rule,  they  are  destroyed  by  the  gastric  juice. 
This  meat,  nevertheless,  remains  dangerous  to  man  on  account  of  the  liability 
of  inoculation  by  handling  or  by  ingestion  through  the  injured  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  digestive  tract. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  2, 
carcasses  affected  with  anthrax  should  be  immediately  incinerated 
or  otherwise  thoroughly  destroyed;  the  same  disposition  should  be 
made  of  the  hides,  hoofs,  horns,  viscera,  and  all  other  parts  of  the 
diseased  animal.  The  killing  bed  and  all  the  instruments  used  in  the 
slaughter  of  the  animal  should  be  disinfected  with  a  1  to  1000  solution 
of  bichloride  of  mercury,] 

RABIES 

On  account  of  its  rarity  and  the  exceedingly  difficult  recognition  of 
rabies  (lyssa)  in  slaughtered  animals,  it  will  be  but  slightly  touched  upon. 
This  disease  may  occur  in  all  food  animals,  and  is  usually  occasioned 
through  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog. 

Etiologically  rabies  requires  further  research  [although  it  is  quite 
generally  accepted  that  the  nerve-cell  inclusions  discovered  by  Negri 
in  1903,  and  termed  Negri  bodies,  are  the  causative  agents], 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  view  of  the  multiplicity  of  variation  of 
the  clinical  symptoms  of  rabies  in  the  different  animal  species  and  the 
uselessness  of  an  extensive  description,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
special  text-books  of  veterinary  medicine.  The  anatomical  changes  are 
not  characteristic. 

The  recognition  of  a  well-developed  case  of  rabies  in  the  living  animal 
is  not  so  very  difficult,  especially  if  it  can  be  observed  for  several  days. 
In  the  slaughtered  animal,  however,  only  a  probable  diagnosis  of 
rabies  can  be  established,  which  may  be  verified  by  the  determination 
of  a  bite  from  a  dog  at  some  previous  time,  and  a  comparison  of  the 
clinical  symptoms  reported.  In  the  dog,  suspicion  is  further  incited 
by  the  presence  of  indigestible  material  (wood,  straw,  hair,  cloth,  etc.) 
in  the  otherwise  usually  empty  stomach;  the  intestinal  tract  is  also 
generally  free  from  normal  foodstuffs.  The  absence  of  any  other  distinct 
organic  disease  which  might  be  the  cause  of  the  symptoms,  also  supports 
the  diagnosis  of  rabies. 

Absolutely  certain  diagnosis  is  obtained  by  subdural,  intraocular,  or  intra- 
muscular inoculation  of  the  substance  of  the  central  nervous  system  into  experi- 
ment animals.  Historically  the  diagnosis  may  be  made  by  the  demonstration 
of  Negri  bodies.  Negri  bodies  are  round,  oval,  or  pear-shaped  structures 
situated  in  the  interior  of  the  large  ganglia  cells  of  the  central  nervous  system. 
They  assume  a  dark  red  color  on  staining  with  eosin-methylene  blue  solution, 
while  the  cells  and  cell-nuclei  appear  blue.  In  the  section  for  the  treatment 
of  rabies  at  the  Royal  Institute  for  Infectious  Diseases  in  Berlin,  the  diagnosis 
of  rabies  is  accepted  on  the  finding  of  the  Negri  bodies  without  recourse  to  animal 
inoculation. 


GLANDERS  287 

Judgment.— As  the  meat  of  rabid  animals  is  dangerous  to  health 
and  unfit  for  food,  it  should  be  condemned.  Although  transmission 
of  rabies  has  not  been  observed  to  result  from  ingestion  of  meat  from 
rabid  animals,  the  disease  is  nevertheless  possible  if  inoculation  occurs 
while  handling  the  meat.  According  to  v.  Ratz,  the  virus  of  rabies 
remains  active  for  thirteen  to  twenty-four  days  after  death  of  the 
animal. 

Veterinary  police  measures  for  rabies  are  the  same  as  for  anthrax, 
e.  g.,  report  of  cases,  forbidden  slaughter,  destruction  or  removal  of 
the  cadaver  so  it  can  do  no  harm. 

In  the  incubation  stage  of  the  disease,  slaughtering  of  domestic 
animals,  with  the  exception  of  cats  and  dogs,  is  not  prohibited,  and 
the  meat  may  also  be  utilized  after  removal  of  the  bitten  area. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  7, 
carcasses  of  animals  affected  with  rabies  should  be  condemned.] 


GLANDERS 

Glanders  or  farcy  is  an  exceedingly  infectious  disease  of  solipeds, 
but  may  be  transmitted  to  sheep,  goats,  dogs,  cats,  and  various  other 
animals,  especially  man.  Of  the  food  animals,  cattle  are  immune, 
while  hogs  are  nearly  so.  The  disease  is  produced  by  the  glanders 
bacillus  discovered  by  Loffler  and  Schiitz. 

Bacteriology. — The  Bacillus  mallei  is  immotile,  2  microns  long,  0.3  micron 
wide,  and  frequently  arranged  in  pairs.  Sporulation  does  not  take  place.  The 
staining  is  best  accomplished,  according  to  Loffler,  by  using  aniline  aqueous 
gentian  violet  for  five  minutes,  to  which  has  been  added  the  same  quantity  of 
potassium  hydrate  solution  (1  to  10,000).  Next  dip  in  acetic  acid  solution 
(1  to  100),  to  which  a  few  drops  of  tropeolin  solution  have  been  added,  and 
then  wash  in  water. 

Potato  culture  is  characteristic;  at  a  temperature  of  37.5°  C.  for  two  days 
it  shows  a  yellow  homogeneous  growth,  which  later  turns  dark  brownish  red 
and  assumes  a  honey-like  appearance. 

Pathogenesis. — The  glanders  bacillus  gains  entrance  in  solipeds  in 
most  cases  by  way  of  the  digestive  apparatus;  next  in  order  through 
the  abraded  skin.  Infection  occurs  rarely  by  way  of  the  air  passages. 
Only  in  very  severe  infections  do  the  bacilli  produce  changes  or  lesions 
at  the  point  of  entrance  (intestinal  mucosa).  As  a  rule,  they  are  dis- 
seminated by  the  lymphatic  or  blood  stream  and  produce  diseased 
processes  embolically  in  the  most  remote  organs.  There  will  form 
either  millet  to  pea-sized,  subepithelial  nodules  (nodular  glanders), 
or  diffuse  cellular  infiltrations  of  the  mucous  membranes  (infiltrated 
glanders).  Disintegration  of  the  nodules  of  the  mucous  membranes 
causes  ulcers,  with  a  yellowish  infiltrated  base,  which  rapidly  enlarge. 
Healing  of  the  ulcers  with  radiating  cicatrices  may  also  occur  (Fig. 
121).  The  nodules,  nodes,  and  diffuse  glanderous  growths  in  the 


288     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

interior  of  the  organs  are  partly  light  gray  and  abundant  in  cells,  partly 
opaque,  yellowish  white,  caseated  or  approaching  suppuration,  and 
partly  grayish  white,  with  a  firm  consistence. 

In  infection  of  the  skin  (farcy,  cutaneous  glanders)  there  form, 
partly  in  the  papillary  portion,  partly  in  the  subcutis,  rapidly  dis- 
integrating nodes,  which  give  rise  to  abscesses.  From  these  abscesses 
a  glanderous  lymphangitis  develops. 

All  glanderous  processes  are  associated  with  a  specific  inflammation 
of  the  lymphatic  glands,  which  is  characterized  by  inflammatory 
swelling,  formation  of  nodules,  areas  of  degeneration,  and  chronic 
inflammatory  proliferation  of  connective  tissue,  which  extends  to  the 
neighboring  tissues,  resulting  in  coalition  of  the  glands  with  the  sur- 
rounding tissues. 

FIG.  121 


Nasal  septum  of  a  horse,  showing  ulcers  and  a  scar  of  glanders.    (After  Ostertag.) 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Of  the  various  symptoms  of  chronic  glanders, 
which  is  frequently  recognized  with  difficulty  in  the  living  animal- 
acute  glanders  not  coming  into  consideration  in  inspection — the  follow- 
ing are  of  particular  importance  on  antemortem  examination:  Nasal 
discharge,  which  is  irregular;  adhesive  mucus  which  is  gray  or  greenish 
yellow,  may  be  mixed  with  a  clear  catarrhal  secretion;  nodules  or 
ulcers  or  cicatrices  on  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose;  diffuse 
enlargement  of  the  submaxillary  lymphatic  glands,  which  later  appear 
painless,  nodular,  hard,  and  attached  to  the  maxilla;  nodes,  ulcers, 
corded  lymphatics  and  glanderous  phlegmons  of  the  skin. 

The  anatomical  changes  correspond  to  the  clinical  symptoms,  from 
the  very  beginning  of  the  disease.  Aside  from  the  changes  in  the  skin 
and  the  nasal  and  accessory  cavities,  special  attention  should  be 
directed  to  changes  in  the  lungs  where  embolic  glanderous  nodules 
(Fig.  122),  sometimes  of  considerable  magnitude,  form.  Further- 
more, emboli  occur  particularly  in  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  testes, 
muscles,  heart,  brain,  and  bones.  The  above-described  lesions  will 
also  be  found  in  the  lymph  glands. 

The  anatomic  recognition  of  glanders  is  of  special  importance. 
The  glassy-gray,  transparent,  or  translucent  appearance  of  the  glanders 
nodules,  their  red  area  and  involvement  of  the  corresponding  lymph 
glands  (swollen  and  nodular  on  section),  have  been  emphasized  by 
Ostertag.  Schiitz  has  also  called  attention  to  chromatotexis  of  the 


GLANDERS 


289 


pus  cells  in  glanders,  in  which,  during  progressive  cell  necrosis,  the 
chromatin  of  the  nuclei  is  broken  up  into  fine  granules.  A  bacterio- 
logic  and  cultural  test  is  indicated  in  all  suspected  cases,  which  are 
to  be  immediately  turned  over  to  the  veterinary  police  authorities. 
The  work  of  practical  meat  inspection  does  not  permit  of  animal  experi- 
ments, as  a  rule. 

[Keyser  obtained  very  good  results  from  the  complement-fixation 
test  for  the  diagnosis  of  glanders  in  carcasses  of  horses,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  this  test  in  doubtful  cases  would  therefore  appear  advisable.] 

FIG.  122 


Old  glanders  nodule  from  the  lung:  a,  central  necrosed  portion;  6,  innermost  cellular  capsule; 
c,  connective-tissue  capsular  layer.    X  30  diameters.     (After  Ostertag.) 

In  order  to  avoid  confusion  with  other  diseases,  there  must  be  con- 
sidered parasitic  lung  nodules  (calcareous  and  fibrous  nodules);  small 
multiple  areas  or  processes  in  traumatic  pneumonia;  embolic  lung  nodules 
in  pyemia,  strangles,  tuberculosis,  actinomycosis,  and  botryomycosis  of 
the  lungs,  leukemia,  and  nasal  catarrh.  In  all  of  these  diseases  the 
characteristic  glanderous  lesions  will  be  absent,  or  similar  findings  will 
be  found  to  differ  on  comparison. 

Judgment. — Upon  the  recognition  of  glanders  in  the  living  animal, 
its  slaughter  is  to  be  prohibited  and  the  necessary  sanitary  precautions 
left  to  the  veterinary  police.  The  meat  of  glanderous  animals  is  to  be 
declared  unfit  for  food  as  it  is  dangerous  to  health. 

From  a  veterinary  police  standpoint  the  compulsory  reporting  and 
19 


290     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

killing  of  the  diseased  animals  must  be  considered.  The  killing  should 
be  done  under  the  direction  of  the  regular  veterinarian;  also  the  removal 
of  the  cadaver  which  is  not  to  be  skinned. 

Great  care  in  handling  glanderous  or  suspected  animals  is  urgently 
advised. 

[Solipeds  are  not  slaughtered  as  food  animals  in  the  United  States, 
and  as  glanders  is  chiefly  a  disease  of  solipeds,  it  is  of  little  importance 
in  meat  inspection  in  this  country ;  the  disease,  however,  may  be  trans- 
mitted to  sheep  and  goats,  and  it  is  only  natural  that  animals  showing 
lesions  of  glanders  should  be  condemned.] 


FOOT  AND  MOUTH  DISEASE 

This  peculiar  affection  of  cloven-foot  animals,  also  called  aphthous 
fever,  is  a  febrile  disease  starting  with  vesicles  or  blisters  on  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  digestive  apparatus  and  outer  skin.  The  affection 
more  frequently  occurs  in  swine  and  cattle.  Sheep,  goats,  and  wild 
cloven-footed  animals  are  seldom  affected.  It  may  be  transmitted  to 
cats,  fowls,  and  human  beings. 

The  exact  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  known,  but  the  virus  is  filter- 
able and  is  exceedingly  contagious. 

Pathogenesis. — The  initial  symptom  of  the  infection  is  a  slight 
internal  fever,  followed  by  rapidly  forming  vesicles.  In  cattle  the 
latter  appear  on  the  lips,  muzzle,  all  parts  of  the  buccal  mucous 
membrane,  between  the  claws,  on  the  pads  of  the  hoofs,  and  around 
the  coronary  band.  Exceptionally  these  erosions  are  also  found  at  the 
base  of  the  horn,  udder,  vulva,  perineum,  and  on  the  scrotum  of  the 
male.  In  sheep  and  goats  there  appear  most  frequently  very  small 
vesicles  between  the  claws;  lesions  are  very  seldom  found  in  the  mouths 
of  these  animals.  Swine  are  first  affected  in  the  interdigital  space  and 
around  the  supernumerary  digits;  later,  small  vesicles  are  noticed  on 
the  muzzle  and  snout. 

These  rapidly  appearing  blisters  soon  burst,  leaving  a  red,  moist 
erosion.  These  erosions,  as  a  rule,  heal  very  rapidly,  and  are  covered 
by  shreds  of  epithelium  growing  in  from  the  edges.  In  very  severe 
cases  the  claws  may  drop  off,  and  the  tendons  of  the  digits  may  become 
affected  by  extensive  suppuration,  or  suppurative  arthritis  may  develop 
with  accompanying  septicemia  or  pyemia. 

The  disease  usually  takes  a  malignant  course  in  suckling  animals, 
which  generally  die  from  inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
A  malignant  type  of  disease  is  also  observed  in  older  animals  during 
certain  periods  of  the  plague,  when  the  animals  die  of  apoplexy  or 
with  manifestations  of  an  intoxication  in  connection  with  a  violent 
type  of  diarrhea. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Besides  the  appearance  of  vesicles,  the 
most  striking  symptoms  are  lameness,  an  affection  of  the  buccal  mucous 
membranes,  and  dribbling  of  saliva.  In  cattle  the  latter  appears  thick 


FOOT  AND  MOUTH  DISEASE 


291 


and  tenacious,  containing  large  bubbles.  This  salivation  may  be  absent 
in  cases  where  the  eruption  and  formation  of  vesicles  are  on  the  pos- 
terior parts  of  the  buccal  mucous  membrane,  in  which  cases  the  animals 
swallow  the  saliva.  Besides  inappetence,  there  is  a  characteristic 
"smacking"  noise  of  the  lips,  which  is  caused  by  a  fast  in  and  out 
motion  of  the  lips.  The  other  symptoms  of  this  disease  appear  accord- 
ing to  the  previously  mentioned  development  of  the  disease. 


FIG.  123 


Vesicles  and  ulcers  on  the  gums  and  ulcers  on  the  muzzle  of  a  cow  affected  with  foot  and  mouth 
disease.     (After  Hutyra  and  Marek.) 

The  anatomical  changes  are  in  accord  with  the  development  of  the 
disease,  and  include  moist  erosions,  which  may  be  followed  by  compli- 
cations, such  as  suppuration  and  ulceration  of  the  joints  and  feet. 

In  the  virulent  form  of  this  disease  the  lesions  present  themselves 
very  differently,  according  to  the  clinical  manifestations.  Severe  gastro- 
enteritis, multiple  embolic  myocarditis,  parenchymatous  or  amyloid 
degeneration  of  the  heart,  and  other  indications  of  blood  poisoning  are, 
however,  seldom  absent. 


292      INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

The  recognition  of  typical  cases  of  foot  and  mouth  disease  is  not 
difficult.  In  the  early  stages  it  may  not  be  easily  recognized,  and 
in  certain  conditions  the  disease  may  only  be  diagnosticated  in  the 
slaughtered  animal.  The  slaughtering  of  "suspects"  should  preferably 
be  carried  out  in  abattoirs  so  that  an  accurate  diagnosis  can  be  estab- 
lished and  the  rapid  eradication  of  the  disease  accomplished.  In  the 
formation  of  vesicles  on  the  dorsum  of  the  tongue  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  fungiform  papillae  remain  standing  apparently  intact  in  the 
eroded  places  (Leutsch). 

Other  lesions  of  the  oral  cavity  which  may  be  confused  with  foot 
and  mouth  disease  are: 

I.  Traumatic  injuries  of  the  epithelium  of  the  mouth. 
II.  Chemical  and  thermic  injuries. 

III.  Superficial  actinomycotic  lesions. 

IV.  Pseudo-aphtha  (Leutsch)  or  erosive  stomatitis  (M.  Miiller). 

V.  Benign  stomatitis;  stomatitis  bovis  specifica  (Ostertag  and 
Bugge,  Hess,  Peters,  Hajnal  [Stomatitis  oidica]). 

The  first  two,  as  a  rule,  show  irregular  destruction  of  the  mucous 
membrane  or  deeper  tissues.  The  actinomycotic  erosions,  which  are 
characterized  clinically  by  very  slight  sensitiveness,  appear  as  sharply 
circumscribed,  mostly  rounded  defects  of  the  mucous  membrane 
with  brownish-red  base,  from  which  flat,  reddish,  button-like  prolifera- 
tions gradually  protrude  like  mushrooms. 

In  pseudoaphtha  or  erosive  stomatitis  the  lesions  range  in  size 
from  a  pea  to  a  penny,  and  begin  as  flat  elevations  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth.  Small  amounts  of  saliva  dribble  from  the 
mouth,  but  the  appetite  is  not  destroyed;  later,  these  elevations 
change  into  superficial  ulcerations.  Occasionally  fever  and  depres- 
sion accompany  this  disease.  The  origin  of  this  affection  is  not 
known. 

Erosive  stomatitis  ononidea,  according  to  Miiller,  is  produced  only 
by  eating  Ononis  spinosa,  or  0.  repens,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  accompanied 
by  some  inappetence. 

The  benign  stomatitis  cannot  be  transmitted  to  calves,  and  other- 
wise corresponds  to  pseudo-aphtha.  In  the  benign  buccal  eruptions, 
described  by  Hess,  papules  form  on  the  mucous  membrane  and  border 
of  the  lips  in  sizes  ranging  from  a  hempseed  to  a  pea,  in  the  centre  of 
which  appears  a  quickly  bursting  vesicle.  After  this  bursting  occurs, 
superficial  ulcers  are  observed.  The  general  health  of  the  animal  is 
not  disturbed  and  the  disease  is  not  transmissible. 

The  following  diseases  of  the  feet  enter  into  consideration  in  differ- 
ential diagnosis: 

1.  Animals  transported  over  hard  and  stony  roads  are,  as  a  rule, 
affected  with  hardening  of  the  pad  of  the  hoof,  which  occurs  uniformly 
on  all  four  feet. 

2.  Contusions  of  the  feet  in  hogs  are  not  infrequently  seen,  mostly 
in  but  one  foot,  which  shows  infiltration  of  blood  without  vesicles, 
or  a  small  blood  blister  on  the  coronary  band. 


VARIOLA  293 

3.  Swelling  of  the  coronary  band  and  pad,  due  to  long  standing 
on  wet  ground. 

4.  Inflammation  of  the  interdigital  space,  especially  foot  rot  in  sheep, 
but  there  are  no  vesicles  present. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  affected  with  this  disease  should 
not,  as  a  rule,  be  condemned  on  account  of  the  disease  itself.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  diseased  parts  must  be  scalded  on  account  of  the 
danger  of  spreading  the  disease  to  animals  and  man.  In  febrile  cases 
and  complications  the  clinical  appearance  and  anatomical  lesions  are 
decisive  in  judging  the  utilization  of  the  meat. 

From  the  standpoint  of  veterinary  police,  compulsory  notification 
of  the  disease  should  be  observed.  The  hide  should  not  be  permitted 
to  be  moved  from  the  premises  until  dried  unless  a  direct  shipment 
is  made  to  the  tannery.  Only  the  veterinary  inspector  is  to  decide  on 
this  question  as  well  as  on  the  disposal  of  the  affected  parts.  In  con- 
sideration of  the  easy  dissemination  of  the  disease  by  the  inspectors 
themselves,  the  greatest  care  is  advised. 

[Foot  and  mouth  disease  does  not  exist  at  the  present  time  in  the 
United  States,  and  therefore  it  does  not  concern  the  meat-inspection 
service  of  this  country.] 

VARIOLA 

Of  the  pock-like  diseases  which  occur  in  all  animals  that  are  slaughtered 
for  their  meat,  the  pox  of  sheep  and  the  vaccination  pox  of  calves  are 
of  importance. 

Sheep  Variola. — Sheep  pox,  after  absence  for  a  number  of  years 
from  Germany,  has  recently  reappeared.  It  is  produced  by  an  easily 
disseminated,  filterable  virus,  whose  pathogenicity  varies.  It  is  prob- 
able that  it  is  taken  into  the  system  through  the  air  passages. 

Pathogenesis. — After  a  period  of  six  or  eight  days'  incubation  the  clinical 
symptoms  of  sheep  variola  appear,  beginning  with  fever,  debility,  loss  of  appe- 
tite, suppurative  conjunctivitis  with  swelling  of  the  lids,  severe  mucopurulent 
nasal  and  pharyngeal  catarrh,  and  foul  odor  from  mouth  and  nose.  After  a 
day  or  two  red,  round,  or  oblong,  nettle-rash-like  excrescences  (roseola  variolosa 
according  to  Hutyra  and  Marek)  appear  on  the  skin  of  those  portions  of  the 
body  which  are  devoid  of  wool  or  only  slightly  woolly,  such  as  the  vicinity  of 
the  eyes,  cheeks,  lips,  alae  nasi,  inner  part  of  thighs,  under  surface  of  tail,  lower 
chest,  and  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen. 

In  the  normal  course  of  the  disease,  pimples  develop  in  these  spotted  areas, 
which  may  increase  at  their  base  to  the  size  of  a  penny  (Stad,ium  papulosum). 
From  under  the  surface  of  the  papules  exudes  a  tenacious  fluid,  which  soon  forms 
vesicles  (S.  vesiculosum) ,  containing  a  yellowish  or  slightly  reddish  fluid.  By 
the  sixth  or  seventh  day  this  becomes  cloudy  and  purulent  (S.  pustulosum, 
S.  suppurationis) .  A  crust  or  scab  (S.  crustosum)  follows  desiccation  of  the 
pustule,  which  dries  and  later  falls  off. 

As  the  skin  and  subcutis  become  edematously  infiltrated  at  the  diseased 
areas  there  occurs  swelling  of  these  portions  of  the  body,  which  may  be  especially 
marked  at  the  head  and  extremities. 

In  some  epizootics  the  pustular  stage  is  absent  at  first  and  during  the  further 
course  of  the  disease  develops  slowly. 


294     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

Although  the  constitutional  condition  of  the  sheep  improves  with  the  de- 
crease of  the  eruption,  severe  catarrh  of  the  mucous  membranes  will  remain  in 
some  cases,  followed  by  catarrhal  pneumonia.  A  sweetish,  nauseating  odor 
emanates  from  these  animals;  they  cease  to  feed,  and  finally  succumb  to  the 
disease. 

Among  other  complications  of  special  significance  are  the  appearance  of 
extensive  hemorrhages  (variola  hsemorrhagica),  the  confluence  of  the  pox,  and 
the  development  of  gangrenous  pox,  in  which  septicemia  or  pyemia  leads  to 
fatal  results. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  symptoms  and  lesions  in  the  live  animal 
are  as  above  described.  In  the  slaughtered  animal  corresponding 
lesions  are  found  in  the  skin,  subcutis,  and  the  mucous  membranes, 
where  pock  vesicles  may  also  appear  and  give  the  appearance  of  only 
slight  or  of  severe  general  constitutional  involvement  (pyemia  or 
septicemia). 

Judgment. — If  sheep  are  slaughtered  while  suffering  from  variola, 
which  rarely  occurs,  the  meat  may  under  most  favorable  circumstances 
be  admitted  as  impaired  in  value.  In  complications,  especially  extensive 
suppurations  and  gangrenous  or  putrid  pox,  the  meat  is  to  be  con- 
demned as  unfit  for  food.  If  the  pox  are  healing  and  the  nutrition  of 
the  sheep  is  good,  the  meat  is  serviceable  for  food. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  veterinary  police  regulations,  compulsory 
notification  is  required  and  the  disposition  of  the  hides  should  be  in 
accordance  with  the  instruction  applying  to  hides  from  animals  affected 
with  foot  and  mouth  disease,  great  care  being  necessary  on  account 
of  the  easy  manner  in  which  pox  contagion  is  spread. 

Cowpox. — While  the  spontaneous  appearance  of  cowpox  from  a 
meat-inspection  standpoint  is  insignificant,  the  vaccination  pox  of 
calves,  which  is  artificially  produced  in  special  institutions  for  the 
purpose  of  preparing  vaccine  lymph  for  protective  vaccination  of 
mankind  against  smallpox,  deserves  special  mention.  Following  the 
slaughter  of  calves  from  which  lymph  of  vaccine  vesicles  is  taken  as 
above  mentioned,  the  carcasses  are  inspected,  but  they  do  not  offer 
any  ground  usually  for  condemnation.  By  way  of  exception  a  febrile 
intercurrent,  intestinal  catarrh,  with  ensuing  deterioration  of  the  flesh, 
causes  this  class  of  meat  to  be  considered  of  inferior  quality. 

Imperfect  scarification  on  the  lower  abdomen,  leads  occasionally 
to  gelatinous  infiltration  of  the  subcutaneous  tissue  and  of  the  super- 
ficial muscular  layer,  in  which  case  the  altered  portions,  with  the 
adjacent  lymph  glands,  must  be  rejected  as  unfit  for  human  food. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  6,  carcasses 
of  vaccine  animals,  showing  unhealed  vaccine  lesions,  should  be  con- 
demned.] 

TETANUS 

By  tetanus  is  understood  a  specific  infectious  disease,  the  exciting 
cause  of  which  produces  in  the  body  tonic  contractions  of  the  trans- 
versely striated  muscles,  through  the  formation  of  toxic  substances 


TETANUS  295 

acting  on  the  nervous  system.    Tetanus  appears  in  all  food  animals  and 
especially  in  horses  and  lambs. 

Etiology  and  Pathogenesis. — The  tetanus  bacilli  or  their  spores 
penetrate  a  wound  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane  of  the  body, 
multiply  in  the  coagulated  blood  or  in  the  necrotic  tissue  of  the  wound 
without  passing  through  the  blood,  form  spores,  and  produce  toxins, 
tetanotoxin,  tetanolysin  (Ehrlich) ,  which  are  carried  through  the  blood 
and  lymph,  causing  an  increased  reflex  excitability  of  the  spinal  cord 
and  nerves,  with  consecutive  tetanic  muscular  contraction. 

The  tetanus  bacilli  (Fig.  124)  are  3  to  5  microns  long  and  0.3  to  0.5  microns 
wide,  motile,  anaerobic,  and  as  soon  as  their  terminal  spores  are  formed  appear 
as  stickpins  in  shape.  They  stain  by  the  ordinary  stains  and  also  by  Gram's 
method. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Among  the  clinical  appearances  the  only 
one  to  be  mentioned  is  the  progressive  stiffening  of  the  muscles,  which, 
following  tetanic  contractions,  appear  as  hard  as  boards.    The  condi- 
tion  begins   to  prevail   in  the  head  as 
trismus,   and  spreads  out   more   or  less  FlG-  124 

rapidly  to  the  muscles  of  the  limbs. 
Accompanying  this  are  excitability,  great 
fear,  frequent  sweatings,  and  increased 
respiration. 

The  postmortem  findings  are  generally 
negative.  In  advanced  cases  there  may 
appear  evidences  of  imperfect  bleeding; 
the  blood  is  blackish  red  and  improperly 
coagulated,  ecchymoses  appear  on  the 
serous  and  mucous  membranes  and  also 
on  the  heart.  There  is  also  parenchym- 
atous  degeneration  of  the  liver,  heart,  Tetanus  badm  with  spores  in  various 

,  .  ,  ,  ,  .  „      stages  of  development;  4  days  old  agar 

kidneys,  and  muscles,  certain  groups  of     culture.  c«boi-fuchsin solution.  (After 
which  show  a  diffused  dirty  red,  bluish-     Hutyra  and  Marek.) 
brown,  soft  or  cooked  appearance.   Hypo- 
static  pneumonia  may  be  present.     The  recognition  of  tetanus  is  as 
difficult  and  even  impossible  after  slaughter  as  it  is  easy  during  life. 

In  animals  slaughtered  in  advanced  cases  it  may  be  mistaken  for 
septicemia,  hemoglobinemia,  suffocation,  certain  cases  of  morbus 
maculosus  and  cerebrospinal  meningitis,  but  each  of  the  diseases  men- 
tioned may  be  differentiated  from  tetanus  by  one  or  more  of  their 
specific  symptoms. 

Judgment. — Because  the  tetanus  bacilli  do  not  pass  through  the 
blood,  the  meat  of  animals  suffering  from  tetanus  when  slaughtered 
early  so  that  only  one  or  a  few  groups  of  muscles  are  diseased,  can  be 
marked  as  fit  for  consumption  after  rejecting  the  possibly  affected  meat. 
It  is,  however,  of  inferior  quality,  when  improper  bleeding  or  other 
slight  changes  (fetid  odor  and  taste,  deviation  in  color,  consistency, 
and  keeping  quality)  are  in  evidence.  If  improper  bleeding  in  a  higher 


296     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

degree  or  degeneration  of  the  parenchyma  exist,  the  meat  should  be 
declared  as  unfit  for  consumption  because  of  the  high  degree  of  deteriora- 
tion. The  tissue  around  the  supposed  point  of  entrance  of  the  bacilli 
must  also  be  condemned. 

According  to  Kitasato,  the  tetanus  toxin  is  broken  up  and  destroyed  by 
cooking  at  65°  C. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation   13,  Section  8,  car- 
casses of  animals  affected  with  tetanus  should  be  condemned.! 


MALIGNANT  EDEMA 

Malignant  edema  is  an  acute  febrile  wound  infection  which  appears 
spontaneously  in  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep,  and  less  often  in  other 
food-producing  animals. 


FIG.  125 


FIG.  126 


Bacilli  of  malignant  edema,  showing 
flagella. 


Bacilli  of  malignant  edema.  Peritoneal  exudate 
from  a  guinea-pig.  Cover-glass  preparation 
stained  with  fuchsin.  X  1000  diameters.  (After 
Hutyra  and  Marek.) 


A  particularly  prominent  form  of  malignant  edema  is  the  so-called 
parturient  symptomatic  anthrax,  the  careful  study  of  which,  by  Albert 
and  Carl,  has  demonstrated  with  great  certainty  that  genuine  symp- 
tomatic anthrax  cannot  develop  in  this  form  (Hutyra  and  Marek). 

Pathogenesis. — The  causative  microorganisms  of  malignant  edema  are 
ubiquitous  and  appear  normally  in  the  intestines.  They  are  slender  bacilli 
3  to  5/i  long,  0.8  to  I//  wide  (Figs.  125  and  126),  with  rounded  ends  (thus 
differing  from  anthrax  bacilli),  and  possess  slight  motility.  They  form  chains 
and  flagella,  are  anaerobic,  and  therefore  do  not  appear  in  circulating  blood. 
After  death  they  wander  out  of  the  intestines  into  the  portal  blood  in  case  the 
carcass  chills  very  slowly.  On  that  account  they  may  be  found  in  the  spleen 
after  twenty-four  hours,  and,  under  such  conditions,  they  form  centrally 
located  spores  in  the  blood,  which  are  easily  stained,  but  not  by  Gram's  method. 

After  entrance  of  the  bacilli  into  the  connective  tissue,  there  develops  an 
edema  infiltrated  with  gas  bubbles  together  with  toxins,  the  absorption  of  which 
causes  fatal  constitutional  disease. 


SEPTICEM1A  297 

The  clinical  symptoms  are  manifested  by  quickly  progressive, 
dough-like,  hot  swellings,  which  afterward  show  crepitation.  A  strong 
febrile  reaction  is  also  present. 

Lesions. — Yellow  gelatinous  infiltrations  of  the  affected  connective 
tissue  and  of  the  surrounding  muscles,  together  with  infiltration  of 
these  areas  with  fetid-smelling  gas  bubbles,  are  observed;  the  paren- 
chyma is  occasionally  unaffected ;  sometimes,  however,  it  is  degenerated ; 
by  way  of  exception,  there  is  a  spleen  tumor  or  swollen  spleen.  In 
cases  where  the  disease  originates  in  the  uterus,  the  latter  is  slightly 
contracted;  its  walls  are  edematous,  and  the  mucous  membrane  is 
swollen  with  the  destruction  of  the  affected  cotyledons.  The  con- 
nective tissue  of  the  small  pelvis  is  edematously  infiltrated. 

Diagnosis. — For  recognition  of  malignant  edema,  it  is  necessary  to 
take  into  consideration  all  the  morphological  and  biological  charac- 
teristics of  the  bacilli  of  malignant  edema;  nevertheless  their  presence 
is  not  decisive,  because  they  can  spread  easily  into  the  body  of  an 
animal  from  the  intestines  after  death. 

The  disease  may  be  mistaken  for: 

1.  Symptomatic    Anthrax. — Here    the  foul   odor  of    the    edematous 
swellings  is  absent.     The  bacilli  of  symptomatic  anthrax  form  only 
end  spores  and  do  not  grow  in  filaments.    The  appearance  of  symp- 
tomatic anthrax  (blackleg)  in  certain  sections  of  the  country  is  to  be 
considered,  and  also  the  fact  that  the  muscles  are  only  occasionally 
attacked  by  malignant  edema. 

2.  Anthrax. — In  malignant  edema  there  are  the  above-mentioned 
morphological  characteristics  of  the  bacilli,  their  absence  in  blood,  and 
failure  in  inoculating  rats.    They  do  not  grow  on  potato  and  gelatin 
media.     Besides  these  differential  characteristics,  there  is  no  crepita- 
tion in  the  edematous  swellings  of  anthrax. 

3.  Inflammatory  Edema. — This  does  not  present  crepitation. 

4.  Subcutaneous  Emphysema. — In  this  case  fever  is  absent. 
Judgment. — Although  the  meat  is  not  injurious  to  health,  it  should 

be  declared  unfit  for  food,  principally  on  account  of  objectionable 
alterations  in  the  meat.  Only  seldom,  in  early  slaughtered  cases,  can 
the  question  of  passing  the  meat  as  of  inferior  quality  arise  after  the 
rejection  of  the  edematous  areas. 

[In  accordance  with  the  meat-inspection  regulations  of  the  United 
States,  carcasses  affected  with  malignant  edema  should  be  condemned, 
not  alone  on  account  of  the  possibility  of  dissemination  of  the  bacilli 
throughout  the  carcass  by  the  blood,  but  also  on  account  of  the  changes 
in  the  meat  produced  by  the  high  febrile  condition  of  the  animals  in  the 
course  of  the  disease.] 

SEPTICEMIA 

By  the  collective  term  "sepsis"1  is  designated,  from  a  purely  scien- 
tific point  of  view,  a  severe  hemolysis  produced  by  the  entrance  of 

1  The  designation  "ichorus"  or  "putrid  blood  poisoning,"  for  sepsis,  should  not  be  used  any  longer 
in  view  of  the  etiology  of  the  latter. 


298     INFECTIOUS,  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

infective  material  (microorganisms  or  ultravisible  contagions)  into  the 
blood.  (Sepsis  in  a  narrow  sense.) 

For  practical  meat  inspection  those  hemolytic  diseases  of  sepsis 
which  are  caused  by  the  entance  of  products  of  pathogenic  bacteria 
(toxins  and  toxalbumins)  into  the  blood  or  by  the  combination  of 
both  the  infectious  material  and  toxins,  are  to  be  considered  under 
the  term  septicemia.  (Sepsis  in  a  broad  sense.) 

The  term  can  also  refer  to  a  bacteriemia  or  a  toxinemia,  and  also 
to  mixed  cases  as  toxemic  bacteriemia. 

The  presence  of  toxins  produced  in  the  blood  through  the  activity 
of  saprophytic  bacteria,  causes  toxinemia,  which  is  called  putrid  intoxi- 
cation or  sapremia  in  contradistinction  to  septicemia. 

The  term  sepsis  includes  the  entrance  of  all  pathogenic  bacteria  and  their 
toxins  into  the  blood  channels;  and  it  includes  also  the  spreading  of  purulent 
matter  through  the  blood,  though  the  disease  of  the  blood  termed  pyemia  con- 
stitutes a  special  affection  when  metastatic  suppurative  foci  develop  in  conse- 
quence of  bacterial  dissemination. 

The  combination  of  septicemia  and  pyemia  is  called  septicopyemia. 

It  is  evident  that  the  other  microparasitic  blood  infections  which  develop 
under  the  manifestation  of  sepsis  and  which  bear  distinct  names  such  as  anthrax, 
erysipelas,  etc.,  belong  in  the  broadest  sense  to  septic  diseases  on  account  of 
the  well-defined  characteristics  of  their  causative  factors  as  specific  agents 
of  blood  infections. 

Pathogenesis. — Although  there  are  still  no  definite  results  in  funda- 
mental investigations  for  exciting  causes  of  all  the  septic  diseases  of 
food-producing  animals,  yet  certain  forms  of  the  streptococci  and 
staphylococci  should  be  etiologically  considered  here.  Doubtless 
other  bacteria  (for  instance,  certain  forms  of  coli  and  Gartner's  enteri- 
tidis  bacillus)  also  cause  septic  conditions,  and  it  is  probable  that  such 
conditions  are  also  favored  by  other  bacteria  (proteus)  under  certain 
symbiotic  relations. 

The  point  of  entrance  for  the  exciting  causes  of  sepsis  can,  in  many 
cases  be  recognized  as  a  local  disease  (wounds,  inflammations,  and 
disintegrating  foci),  while  obscure  infections  do  occur,  however,  with- 
out any  noticeable  place  of  inoculation.  The  further  effects  of  the 
deleterious  microbes  result  from  the  facts  already  explained,  the  principal 
factor  being  the  formation  of  toxic  substances,  which  almost  invariably 
cause  a  fatal  termination. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  as  well  as  the  anatomic 
appearances  of  septic  diseases  are  frequently  so  little  apparent  that 
an  especially  thorough  examination  and  careful  estimate  of  every  single 
symptom  are  absolutely  necessary. 

Of  the  clinical  phenomena  the  following  are  of  special  impor- 
tance : 

1.  High  fever  (in  cattle  41°  to  42°  C.),  beginning  with  rigor,  which 
is  absent  only  in  very  exceptional  cases.    During  the  last  stage  of  the 
disease,  normal  and  subnormal  temperatures  appear. 

2.  Cardiac  weakness  and  greatly  accelerated,  wiry  pulse. 


SEPTICEMIA  299 

3.  Severe  psychical  depression,   muscular  weakness,   tremors,   and 
paralysis  of  certain  nerve  regions,  which,  however,  in  most  cases  are 
difficult  to  establish. 

4.  Dirty  red,  blurred  coloring  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes, 
showing  petechia  and  ecchymosis. 

5.  Drying  up  of  the  milk  during  lactation. 

6.  The  presence  of  an  injury  or  of  a  suppurating  wound  upon  the 
surface  of  the  body  where  the  septic  disease  originated,  or  discharge 
of  an  ichorous  nature  through  a  natural  orifice  of  the  body,  especially 
from  the  vagina;  but  these  lesions  may  be  absent. 

In  the  postmortem  examination  there  are  especially  to  be  observed: 

1.  Cloudy  swelling  of  the  heart,  liver,  and  kidneys,  which  is  some- 
times accompanied  by  fatty  degeneration.     The  latter  should  not  be 
mistaken,  for  normal  fatty  livers  of  animals  which  are  in  an  advanced 
stage  of  pregnancy  or  have  recently  given  birth  to  young. 

2.  Swelling  and  serous  infiltration  of  most  lymphatic  glands.    These 
may  also  be  permeated  by  isolated  hemorrhages  or  hemorrhagic  foci. 
Lymph  stasis,  following  obstruction  in  the  circulation  (as  for  instance 
in  traumatic  pericarditis),  should  not  be  mistaken  for  marked  satura- 
tion of  the  lymph  glands  in  the  dependent  portions  of  meat  that  is 
hanging  up. 

3.  Petechise — ecchymoses  and  suggillations— under  the  serous  mem- 
branes and  in  the  mucous  membranes,  for  which  the  so-called  asphyxia- 
tion hemorrhages  should  not  be  mistaken  (page  221). 

4.  Bloody  imbibition  of  the  intima  of  the  great  bloodvessels. 

5.  Blood-stained  serous  exudates  in  the  thoracic  and  abdominal 
cavities. 

6.  Imperfect  coagulation  of  the  blood. 

7.  Insufficient  rigor  mortis  and  imperfect  bleeding. 

8.  Soft,  withered,  watery  character  of  the  meat,  which  has  a  singular, 
generally   dark   color,   and   sometimes   develops   a   peculiar  sweetish 
repugnant  odor,  which,  as  a  rule,  appears  only  during  the  cooking 
test. 

9.  Alkaline  reaction  of  the  meat,   which  is  permanent   (compare 
page  53). 

10.  The  existence  of  a  centre  of  origin  for  the  septic  disease,  which 
in  many  instances  may  be  present  only  as  an  insignificant  lesion,  and 
sometimes  it  cannot  even  be  detected. 

11.  The  duration  of  the  course  of  the  disease  must  be  in  certain 
relation  to  the  intensity  of  the  infection. 

The  recognition  of  sepsis,  from  the  pronounced  features  of  the  disease, 
is  not  difficult,  especially  if  a  point  of  origin  can  be  demonstrated,  but 
in  new  cases,  and  where  infection  is  obscure,  the  diagnosis  may  be 
difficult.  In  such  instances  all  changes,  even  insignificant  ones,  must 
be  observed  and  their  relative  importance  carefully  weighed.  There 
should  always  be  taken  into  consideration  the  fact,  correctly  pointed 
out  by  Ostertag,  that  the  more  prominent  pathological  changes  in  the 
internal  organs,  by  which  the  marked  symptoms  may  be  explained, 


300     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

are  very  often  absent,  and  that  sepsis,  nevertheless,  may  be  present 
regardless  of  the  absence  of  these  lesions.  In  doubtful  cases,  and 
especially  where  immediate  slaughter  becomes  necessary,  a  second 
examination  must  be  made  after  twenty-four  hours.  In  some  instances 
the  method  proposed  by  Basenau  (page  148)  may  be  of  aid  in  reaching 
a  diagnosis. 

The  septicemic  diseases  of  cattle  appear  chiefly  in  the  following 
forms,  the  most  important  characteristic  symptoms  of  which  alone 
are  here  given: 

1.  Septic  polyarthritis  of  calves,  following  septic  infection  of  the  navel  (septic 
omphalophlebitis  in  calves). — Flaccid  inflammation  of  the  navel,  with  dirty 
red,  offensive  secretions,  very  often  accompanied  by  ichorous  disintegration  of 
the  umbilical  vessels,  serous  arthritis  with  gelatinous  infiltration  of  the  peri- 
articular  portions,  especially  of  the  tarsal  and  carpal  joints,  as  well  as  of  the 
radio-ulnar,  hock,  and  hip-joints,  tumefaction  and  marked  saturation  of  the 
muscular  lymph  glands,  and  sometimes  icterus,  are  present. 

2.  Hemorrhaqic  enteritis  of  calves,  which  runs  a  rapid  course,  so  that  in  some 
cases  no  cloudy  swelling  of  the  parenchyma  is  observed.     Bloody  diarrhea, 
blood-stained  intestinal  contents,  and  acute  hemorrhagic  enteritis,  especially 
of  the  small  intestines,  with  swelling  and  bloody  saturation  of  the  mesenteric 
lymph  glands,  are  observed.    The  disease  is  probably  a  form  of  scour  of  calves 
(p.  322). 

3.  Septic  enteritis  of  cattle,  similar  to  the  foregoing,  but  incomplete  with 
regard  to  symptomatology.     Every  inflammation  of  the  intestines  of  cattle, 
accompanied  by  severe  febrile  and  general  disturbances,  must  be  looked  upon 
as  suspicious  of  sepsis. 

4.  Septic  metritis  of  cows,  which  follows  retention  of  fetal  membranes,  or 
injury  to  the  genital  passages.     In  the  latter  there  are  mostly  diphtheritic 
patches  and  ulcers.     Septic  metritis  is  accompanied  by  pelvic  peritonitis, 
saturation  of  the  pelvic  connective  tissue,  and  marked  infiltration  of  the  sacral 
and  iliac  lymph  glands.    It  has  been  emphatically  stated  by  Albrecht  that  not 
all  febrile  diseases  of  cattle  caused  by  metritis  are  of  septic  nature  from  the 
beginning,  and  with  timely  slaughter  and  good  bleeding  the  meat  may  not  be 
injurious  to  health.     Perhaps  Albrecht 's  case  was  one  of  general  sapremic 
intoxication  caused  by  secondary  retention  (page  203) .    On  the  other  hand,  great 
precaution  is  necessary  when  cattle  are  slaughtered  in  an  advanced  stage 
of  the  disease,  and  when  there  is  incomplete  bleeding,  or  extensive  gangrenous 
alteration  of  the  genital  passages. 

5.  Septic  pleuritis  and  peritonitis  are  caused  by  external  injuries,  or  by  per- 
foration of  the  intestines,  respectively,  as  a  result  of  ulcerations  or  necrotic 
processes. 

6.  Septic  or  Traumatic  Pericarditis. — This  affection  appears  only  in  cattle, 
and  is  caused  by  penetration  of  foreign  bodies  through  the  stomach  into  the 
pericardium.     Cases  of  pericarditis,  however,  are  not  always  accompanied 
by  offensive  secretions  of  septic  nature. 

7.  Septic  Mastitis  of  Cows. — This  is  distinguished  from  other  inflammatory 
conditions  of  the  udder  by  its  rapid  progress,  accompanied  by  severe  general 
symptoms.     It  may  affect  at  least  one-half  of  the  udder  or  the  entire  udder, 
which  is  considerably  swollen,  dark  red,  and  hot,  with  corresponding  swelling 
and  infiltration  of  its  lymph  glands.     Extension  of  the  inflammation  to  the 
abdominal  wall  and  to  the  surface  of  the  inner  thigh  may  follow. 

8.  Septic  wounds  and  injuries  of  any  kind  and  origin  may  lead  to  septicemia. 
Wounds  of  the  joints,  deep  puncture  wounds,  with  improper  drainage,  and 
wounds  on  the  digits,  with  extensive  destruction  of  tissue,  predispose  to  septi- 
cemia. 


PYEMIA  301 

9.  In  classifying  morbus  maculosus  (petechial  fever,  purpura  haBmorrhagica) 
of  horses  and  cattle  under  septicemic  forms,  the  author  agrees  with  Ostertag, 
Hutyra,  Marek  and  others  to  the  effect  that  the  most  striking  symptoms 
of  the  disease,  i.  e.,  hemorrhages  and  marked  changes  in  the  parenchyma, 
indicate  that  morbus  maculosus  is  a  septic  intoxication. 

Judgment. — From  experience  gained  in  cases  of  meat  poisoning 
it  is  essential  that  carcasses  of  all  food  animals  affected  with  sepsis 
should  be  considered  unfit  for  human  food  on  account  of  their  danger 
to  health,  and  such  disposal  should  be  made  of  them  as  would  cause 
no  harm.  As  the  toxalbumins  of  septicemia  bacteria  are  not  positively 
destroyed  by  heat,  the  use  of  this  meat  even  in  a  cooked  condition 
is  not  permitted. 

The  practice  proposed  by  Basenau,  namely,  the  feeding  of  fresh  and 
cooked  meat  to  mice  to  prove  that  it  is  poisonous,  cannot  be  recom- 
mended universally  on  account  of  the  circumstances  frequently 
accompanying  suspected  cases  of  septicemia. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Sections  5 
and  18  a,  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  septicemia  should  be  condemned.] 


PYEMIA 

Pyemia  is  a  disease  of  the  blood  caused  by  microorganisms  entering 
into  the  circulation  and  resulting  in  the  development  of  metastatic 
abscesses  or  suppurative  osteomyelitis  (osteomyelitis  suppurativa) . 
It  is  described  as  a  purulent  blood  poisoning. 

FIG.  127  FIG.  128 


f         . 


Staphylococcus     pyogenes.     Stained     prepara-  Streptococcus  pyogenes.      Stained    preparation 

tion  from  a  pure  culture.     X   1000  diameters.        from  a  pure  culture.    X   1000  diameters.    (After 
(After  Weichselbaum.)  Weichselbaum.) 

Pathogenesis.  —  The  pus-forming  microorganisms,  which  are  the 
exciting  causes  of  pyemia,  are  principally  Staphylococcus  pyogenes 
aureus  (Micrococcus  pyogenes,  Fig.  127),  and  Streptococcus  pyogenes 
(Fig.  128).  They  usually  enter  the  blood  directly  through  a  local 
suppurative  focus  or  indirectly  through  the  lymph  channels;  the  disease 
may  also  develop  from  an  obscure  origin. 


302      INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

As  long  as  bacteria  circulate  in  the  blood  they  will  produce  fever. 
Elimination  from  the  circulation  may  follow  if  they  become  deposited 
in  the  various  organs,  the  lungs  and  liver  coming  first  into  considera- 
tion, then  the  kidneys,  spleen,  bone  marrow,  joints,  muscles,  brain, 
etc.  The  results  of  suppurative  emboli  differ  according  to  the  character 
of  the  pyogenic  bacteria.  In  cases  where  the  beginning  of  embolic 
suppurative  foci  is  characterized  by  the  appearance  of  grayish-yellow 
areas,  that  are  surrounded  at  first  by  a  red  zone,  the  emboli  may  be 
considered  as  principally  streptococcic.  From'  these  foci,  abscesses 
develop  in  the  interior  of  the  organs,  their  growth  being  arrested  by 
encapsulation,  and  later  the  abscesses  become  consolidated  by  drying 
and  calcification.  Accordingly,  recovery  from  pyemia  is  possible 
and  is  not  infrequent  in  food  animals.  The  disseminated  pus-forming 
organisms,  however,  may  also  produce  suppurative  inflammation  of 
the  serous  membranes. 

When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  changes  described  below  occur  in 
the  marrow,  they  should  be  considered  as  due  to  staphylococcic  emboli 
(Ostertag). 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Clinically,  the  disease  can  only  be  diag- 
nosticated as  pyemia  by  the  presence  of  local  suppurations,  accom- 
panied by  intermittent  high  fever  and  depression.  If,  in  addition, 
there  is  inflammation  of  the  joints  and  of  the  bones,  or  if  affections 
of  the  lungs  or  kidneys  are  manifested,  then  the  seat  of  the  metastatic 
abscesses  is  indicated.  The  pathological  lesions  are  the  result  of  the 
pathogenic  effect  of  the  bacteria.  It  is  to  be  especially  observed, 
however,  that  as  long  as  actual  pyemia  exists  there  are  always  mani- 
fest appearances  of  severe  infection  of  the  blood,  and  particularly  cloudy 
swelling  of  the  parenchyma,  punctiform  hemorrhages  in  the  kidneys, 
lymph  glands,  and  under  the  serous  membranes;  these  are  present 
in  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  punctiform,  puriform  foci,  or 
suppurative  inflammation,  and  changes  in  the  bone  marrow. 

The  recognition  of  pyemia  in  slaughtered  animals  is  not  difficult 
when  the  disease  is  well  developed.  In  the  first  stages  the  diagnosis 
must  be  established  even  without  the  presence  of  the  metastatic  suppu- 
rative foci,  by  means  of  the  other  symptoms  of  a  general  blood  infec- 
tion, especially  if  local  suppuration  or  local  osteomyelitis  be  present; 
when  doubtful,  it  would  be  advisable  to  protect  the  consumer  by 
condemning  the  carcass. 

Although  pyemia  may  develop  as  a  consequence  of  any  local  suppura- 
tive process,  the  following  forms,  whose  symptomatology  deserves  only 
slight  mention,  may  be  particularly  noted: 

1.  Pyemic  polyarthritis,   occurring  especially  in   calves    (pyosepticemia   in 
calves,  suppurative  inflammation  of  umbilical  vein).    It  may  also  exist  without 
a  conspicuous  affection  of  the  umbilicus  as  a  disease  of    the  carpal,  tarsal, 
radio-ulnar,  hock,  and  femoro-tibial  joints  with  corresponding  general  symptoms. 
Attention  is  also  called  to  the  fact  that  numerous  instances  of  recovered  cases 
of  pyemia  in  calves  have  been  noted. 

2.  Hemorrhagic  and  purulent  osteomyelitis  is  often  of  obscure  origin.     At 
first  there  is  hyperemia  of  the  bone  marrow  with  hemorrhages  therein,  but 


PUTRID  INTOXICATION  303 

later,  puriform  softening  of  the  bone  marrow  occurs  with  suppurative  ulcera- 
tions  in  the  joints. 

3.  The  pyemias  following  swine  plague  and  caseous  pneumonia,  especially 
in  sheep,  goats,  and  calves,  present  no  special  characteristics. 

4.  The  pyobacillosis  of  pigs,  under  certain  conditions,  may  run  the  course  of 
pyemic  cachexia;  but  symptoms  of  acute  intoxication  are  not  prominent. 

Judgment. — The  causes  of  suppuration  in  animals  and  man  are 
identical,  and  the  meat  of  pyemic  animals  contains  pus-producing 
bacteria  with  their  metabolic  products  (toxalbumins) .  Such  meat  has 
been  shown  to  be  injurious  to  the  health  of  mankind  by  the  numerous 
poisonings  which  have  occurred  through  infection,  and  must  be  desig- 
nated as  unfit  for  human  food,  for  even  boiling  does  not  remove  its 
injurious  properties. 

It  is  not  yet  established  whether  the  toxicity  of  the  meat  from 
pyemic  animals  is  due  to  the  pus-producing  organisms  alone,  or  to  the 
introduction  of  other  microorganisms  (enteritidis  and  colon  bacilli) 
from  the  intestines  into  the  tissues  of  the  body  as  a  result  of  severe 
constitutional  disease. 

When  metastatic  abscesses  occur  in  the  animal  body,  without  any 
constitutional  symptoms — processes  which  therefore  do  not  belong  to 
pyemia  as  such,  and  can  be  viewed  only  as  possibly  healed  pyemia — 
the  portions  of  the  carcass  not  infected  are  always  to  be  considered 
as  harmless.  A  distinct  encapsulation  of  the  abscesses  is  not  always 
necessary;  but  in  no  case  should  any  signs  of  blood  poisoning  be  present. 
Whether  in  cases  of  multiple  abscess  formation  the  utilizable  portions 
of  meat  are  to  be  declared  of  impaired  value,  depends  upon  the  nutritive 
condition  of  the  animal,  the  extension  of  the  metastases,  their  intensity 
and  location,  and  upon  changes  in  the  meat,  such  as  variation  of  odor 
and  consistency  from  that  of  normal  meat.  In  certain  cases  (for 
instance,  suppuration  of  the  body  lymph  glands  and  joints,  muscular 
abscesses)  it  may  be  necessary  to  consider  the  meat  as  unfit  for  food 
on  account  of  its  deteriorated  or  spoiled  condition. 

For  hypophrenic  abscesses,  see  page  218. 

Contamination  of  meat  with  pus  from  the  heart  or  vena  cava,  in  which 
pus  enters  after  death  from  rupture  of  hypophrenic  and  hepatic  abscesses, 
has  been  described  by  Lohbeck,  Reimers,  Haffner. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Sections  5  and 
18  a,  carcasses  showing  lesions  of  pyemia  should  be  condemned.] 


PUTRID  INTOXICATION. 

Putrid  intoxication  or  sapremia  (Ostertag)  recently  separated  from 
the  clinical  diagnosis  of  septicemia,  is  more  rarely  observed  in  meat 
inspection  since  septic  processes  are  frequently  associated  with  it. 
Sapremia  is  an  intoxication  of  the  blood  produced  by  resorption  of 
the  products  of  metabolism  of  saprophytes  (saprophytic  bacteria) 


304     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

which  are  situated  in  a  portion  of  the  organism  not  engaged  in 
nutrition  (necrotic  areas,  thrombi,  hematoma,  retained  secretions 
and  excretions),  and  produce  decomposition.  The  bacteria,  it  is 
true,  produce  constitutional  disturbances,  but  this,  however,  is  not 
marked,  as  the  toxins  present  in  the  blood  are  destroyed  by  active, 
healthy  cells.  Parenchymatous  affections  are  absent  or  are  insig- 
nificant on  postmortem  examination  of  sapremic  animals,  but  they 
invariably  show  a  putrefactive  process  of  bad  odor. 

In  traumatic  pericarditis  of  cattle  pure  clinical  examples  of  sapremia 
may  be  occasionally  observed.  In  these  cases  marked  changes  will 
frequently  be  found  in  the  heart  and  pericardium  with  very  malodorous 
masses  of  exudates,  showing  no  signs  of  fever  during  life,  nor  presence 
of  any  other  pathological  lesions.  In  such  cases  the  meat  is  not  to 
be  considered  injurious  to  health,  though  of  impaired  value,  in  view 
of  the  diseased  condition.  Occasionally  the  meat  will  be  found  edema- 
tous,  or  organic  diseases  of  other  organs  may  be  present  and  for  this 
reason  it  will  be  necessary  sometimes  to  declare  the  meat  unfit  for 
food. 

On  account  of  the  possibility  of  transmission  of  the  putrid  odor 
from  the  exudative  masses  in  the  pericardial  sac  to  the  rest  of  the  meat, 
the  boiling  test  should  always  be  applied. 

In  retained  placenta  of  cattle  there  may  develop  at  the  beginning 
a  purely  sapremic  constitutional  disease,  which  may  lead  to  recovery 
under  proper  treatment  in  spite  of  slight  or  moderate  fever.  In  these 
cases  the  meat  of  animals  slaughtered  early  and  showing  no  signs  of 
sepsis  is  harmless.  However,  on  account  of  complications  with  inflam- 
matory lesions  of  the  uterus  (septic  metritis),  care  should  be  exercised. 

[Carcasses  showing  putrid  intoxications  are  judged  in  the  meat- 
inspection  service  of  the  United  States  on  the  same  lines  as  infection 
with  septicemia  or  pyemia,  and  therefore  should  be  condemned.] 


ERYSIPELAS  OF  HOGS 

Although  more  recent  observation  shows  the  possibility  of  transmission  of 
erysipelas  of  hogs  to  man  under  certain  conditions,  this  form  of  septicemia 
will  be  considered  in  the  following  section  on  account  of  its  relation  to  other 
diseases. 


INFECTIOUS   DISEASES   CHARACTERISTIC   OF  FOOD 
ANIMALS  BUT  NOT  TRANSMISSIBLE  TO  MAN 

SWINE  ERYSIPELAS,  URTICARIA,  SWINE  PLAGUE,  AND  HOG 

CHOLERA 

Swine  Erysipelas. — Erysipelas  of  swine,  also  called  rotlauf  and 
bacillary  erysipelas,  is  an  acute,  frequently  occurring  epizootic  disease, 
produced  by  a  specific  bacillus  (Bacillus  rhusiopathice') ,  discovered 
by  Loffler. 


SWINE  ERYSIPELAS 


305 


According  to  certain  German  investigators,  the  disease  which  will 
later  be  described  as  urticaria  belongs  etiologically  to  erysipelas,  but 
for  practical  reasons1  it  should  be  differentiated  from  the  latter. 

Pathogenesis. — The  erysipelas  bacilli,  which  may  also  develop  ecto- 
genously,  gain  admission  to  the  organism  through  the  digestive  tract 
or  through  wounds  of  the  skin.  Perhaps  they  are  normally  present 
in  the  body  of  the  hog  (intestines,  tonsils),  but  under  certain  conditions 
they  may  become  pathogenic,  according  to  the  recent  observations 
of  Olt,  Bauermeister,  and  Jensen. 

The  erysipelas  bacilli  are  about  0.8  to  1.5  p  long,  0.1  to  0.2 //  wide,  and  stain 
with  basic  aniline  stains;  also  by  Gram's  method  (Fig.  129).  In  nutritive  gela- 
tin media  at  room  temperature  stab  cultures  assume  the  characteristic  bottle- 
brush  shape  after  three  or  four  days  (Fig.  130).  The  bacilli  are  not  particularly 


FIG.  129 


FIG.  130 


Bacilli  of  swine  erysipelas.     Dried  blood  preparation.     X  500  diameters. 

resistant  to  atmospheric  influences.  While  Petri's  obser- 
vations, which  have  been  practically  verified  by  Stadie, 
showed  that  the  usual  preparation  and  conservation 
methods  of  handling  meat  are  not  sufficient  to  kill  the 
organisms,  heating  in  a  steam  kettle  destroys  them. 

After  passing  through  mice,  the  erysipelas  bacilli  lose 
their  virulence  for  hogs  (Prettner). 

The  bacilli,  after  gaining  entrance  into  the  blood, 
multiply  rapidly,  producing  toxins  whose  action 
extends  particularly  to  the  blood,  the  larger  organs 
of  the  body,  and  the  nervous  system.  In  the 
majority  of  cases  the  disease  runs  a  fatal  course,  and 
on  account  of  its  dangerous  character  frequently 
leads  to  the  emergency  slaughter  of  the  animal. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  the  living  animal,  red- 
ness of  the  skin  is  particularly  noticeable,  occurring 
in  spots  on  the  inferior  part  of  the  abdomen,  inner  thigh  surfaces,  breast, 
neck,  and  ears.  The  red  spots  spread  rapidly,  turn  blue  or  brownish 
red,  and  are  evenly  discolored.  At  the  same  time  there  exist  severe 
general  disturbances,  such  as  fever,  debility,  anorexia,  constipation 
followed  by  diarrhea,  accelerated  breathing,  etc. 


Erysipelas  bacilli,  stab 
culture  in  gelatin;  5  days 
old  in  room  temperature. 


[l  If  urticaria  were  a  mild  form  of  erysipelas,  one  would  naturally  expect  to  find  some  severe  cases 
of  swine  erysipelas;  but,  although  the  former  prevails  to  a  considerable  extent  in  this  country,  the 
latter  has  never  been  observed.] 

20 


306     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

The  pathological  lesions  vary  with  the  stage  of  the  disease  during 
which  the  animal  was  slaughtered.  It  frequently  happens  that  when 
the  hog  is  scalded  the  redness  of  the  skin  becomes  even  more  intensified, 
and  may  extend  deep  into  the  subcutaneous  fatty  layer  (Speckschicht). 
In  addition  there  is  but  slight  "bleeding  out/'  insufficient  rigor  mortis, 
enlargement  of  the  spleen,  parenchymatous  degeneration  of  the  liver, 
heart,  and  kidneys,  which  latter  usually  show  hemorrhagic  inflamma- 
tion, hemorrhages  beneath  the  serosa  and  in  the  cortical  layer  of  the 
kidneys,  hemorrhagic  gastro-enteritis,  swelling  of  the  intestinal  lymph 
follicles,  enlargement  and  marked  transudation  of  the  mesenteric 
glands  and  other  lymph  glands,  which  may  also  show  punctiform 
hemorrhages.  In  severe  cases,  and  especially  in  animals  slaughtered 
when  approaching  death,  the  musculature  appears  serosanguinolent, 
grayish  red,  and  has  a  tendency  to  decompose  rapidly. 

Endocarditis  valvularis  verrucosa  may  be  observed  as  a  sequel. 

These  symptoms  furnish  sufficient  basis  for  the  recognition  of  the 
disease,  the  demonstration  of  the  erysipelas  bacillus  being  best  effected 
through  specimens  taken  from  the  splenic  pulp.  Inoculated  mice  or 
pigeons  succumb  after  three  or  four  days,  and  a  culture  will  develop 
the  characteristic  properties  within  the  same  period  of  time. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — In  order  to  avoid  confusion  in  the  recognition 
of  erysipelas  there  must  be  considered : 

1.  Swine  Plague  and  Hog  Cholera. — The  symptoms  of  both  these 
diseases  resemble  in  the  acute  stage  those  of  erysipelas;  in  the  slaugh- 
tered animal,  however,  the  anatomical  findings  will  differ  decidedly. 

2.  Urticaria. — This  disease  during  life  produces  characteristic  skin 
macules,  while  on  postmortem  examination  there  is  an  absence  of  the 
lesions  in  the  viscera.     At  most  there  may  be  present  enlargement 
of  the  spleen  or  liver  if  the  animals  are  slaughtered  at  the  height  of 
the  disease. 

3.  Erythema  of  Thermic  or  Mechanical  Nature. — These  changes  are 
confined  to  the  skin  of  certain  portions  of  the  body  only,  and  in  mechani- 
cal causes  hemorrhages  occur;  internal  lesions  are  absent. 

4.  Heat  Stroke. — This  frequently  occurs  in  summer  transportation 
of  hogs,  and  is  accompanied  by  bluish-red  discolorations  of  the  skin, 
the  latter,  however,  being  mostly  hypostatic;  on  postmortem  examina- 
tion indications  of  suffocation  will  be  found. 

5.  Wound  Erysipelas — This  condition  being  almost  always  restricted 
to  the  head,  is  usually  unilateral  and  characterized  by  severe  infiltra- 
tion of  the  subcutis  of  the  parts  affected.    Kleinert  has  observed  two 
cases  in  hogs  of  more  extensive  erysipelas  of  the  head,  breast,  abdomen, 
outer  surface  of  the  thighs,  back,  and  ears,  associated  with  putrid 
metritis  (suppurative  metritis). 

6.  Anthrax. — This  disease  is  very  rare  in  hogs,  occurring  generally 
as  gloss  anthrax.    Demonstration  of  the  bacilli  confirms  the  diagnosis. 

Judgment. — For  judgment  of  erysipelas  in  hogs,  see  page  312. 
Urticaria. — Nettle  fever,  or  diamond^skin  disease,  of  hogs  is  a  macular 
hemorrhagic  dermatitis,  accompanied  by  febrile  constitutional  symp- 


SWINE  PLAGUE  307 

toms,  and  runs  a  mild  course.   Since  FlG- 131 

Lorenz,    Jensen,    Schiitz,    Luepke, 

etc.,  have  demonstrated  erysipelas 

bacilli  in  the  skin,  the  disease  is 

classed  with  erysipelas,  although  the 

other  symptoms  differ  from  it.1  ^^^^^ 

The  clinical  findings  are  charac- 
terized by  flat,  red,  round,  or  rhom- 
bic skin  plaques,  which  rapidly 
increase  in  size  and  number.  In 
the  slaughtered  animal  the  plaques 
usually  present  a  rhombic  shape 
(Fig.  131),  and  extend  deep  into  the 
cutis  and  even  into  the  subcutis. 
Diseases  of  internal  organs  are  ab- 
sent in  slight  cases,  but  severe  cases 
may  be  associated  with  enlarged 
spleen  and  hyperemia  of  the  liver. 

The  recognition  of  urticaria  is 
easy;  to  avoid  confusion,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  consider  the  diseases 
mentioned  in  the  discussion  on  dif- 
ferential diagnosis  of  erysipelas. 

Judgment.  —  The  diseased  skin 
areas  should  be  removed  and  no 
further  restrictions  placed  on  the 
meat. 

In  Prussia  this  disease  is  subject  to 

the    same    veterinary,  regulations  as 

erysipelas,  according  to  the  decree  of 
March  11,  1902. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Regula- 
tions hogs  affected  with  urticaria 
may  be  passed  after  detaching  ai:d 
condemning  the  skin.] 

Swine  Plague. — Swine 
plague  or  swine  septice- 
mia  (Loffler,  Preisz)  is  a 
subacute  or  chronic  con- 
tagious disease  of  hogs, 
frequently  occurring  as- 
sociated with  hog  cholera 
in  the  same  animal. 
The  pure  forms  of  swine  sid*  of  a  hog  with  urticaria. 

['  In  this  country,  urticaria  has  never  been  found  associated  with  the  erysipelas  bacillus,  and  further- 
more swine  erysipelas  does  not  exist  in  the  United  States.  The  urticarial  disease  found  in  postmortem 
work  is  caused  by  vasomotor  changes,  resulting  from  the  consumption  of  certain  foodstuffs,  as  in  other 
species  of  animals.] 


308     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

plague  are  characterized  by  severe  pneumonia,  accompanied  by  pleu- 
ritis  and  pericarditis  and  their  complications  and  sequelse. 

According  to  Ostertag,  every  inflammation  of  the  lungs  in  hogs 
which  cannot  be  proved  to  be  caused  by  foreign  bodies,  parasites, 
tubercle  bacilli,  or  pus  bacteria  is  to  be  suspected  as  being  swine  plague. 

Pathogenesis. — Swine  plague  is  caused,  by  bacteria  which  are  usually 
oval  in  shape,  but  occasionally  bacillus-like  (Bacillus  suisepticus] . 
They  belong  to  the  group  of  bacteria  causing  hemorrhagic  septicemia 
(Hueppe),  i.  e.,  rabbit  septicemia  (Koch). 

The  bacteria  (Fig.  132)  are  about  1  p  long,  0.5  n  wide,  oval,  immotile,  and 
take  a  bipolar  stain  with  gentian  violet.  According  to  Preisz,  this  is  best 
accomplished  when  stained  with  aqueous  fuchsin,  and  then  decolorized  with 
alcohol  or  weak  acetic  acid.  These  bacteria  are  found  in  the  blood  as  well 
as  in  the  diseased  tissues. 

The  bacteria  of  swine  plague  enter  the  body  through  the  respiratory 
organs  or  by  the  digestive  tract  and  from  thence  to  the  blood,  produc- 
ing a  rapid  or  gradual  general  infection  similar  to  septicemia.     The 
lungs  are  the  sites  of  predilection  for  their  destruc- 
FIG.  132  five  action.      In  accordance  with  the  virulence  of 

the   swine   plague   bacteria,  various  "types"   are 
noted,  but  they  do  not  differ  morphologically. 

The  course  of  the  disease  may  be  peracute, 
simulating  hemorrhagic  septicemia;  acute,  as  a 
multiple  caseous  pneumonia;  and  chronic,  with 
the  symptoms  of  a  catarrhal  pneumonia,  the  latter 
being  the  most  common  form.  Recovery  may  occur, 

Swine  plague  bacteria.      ,          P  ,  .  xi_    i       •      i  l      • 

Dried  blood  preparation,  leaving  more  or  less  extensive  pathological  lesions, 
x  500  diameters.  such  as  adhesions  between  the  pleurae,  and  between 

the  lungs  and  pericardium,  fibrosis  of  the  lung 
tissue,  and  caseous,  sequestrated  areas.  When  swine  plague  and  hog 
cholera  occur  in  the  same  animal,  Preisz  holds  that  in  acute  cases  the 
latter  infection  is  primary,  while  the  former  is  only  secondary. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  depend  on  the  course 
of  the  disease;  for  at  one  time  they  are  of  general  septic  infection, 
while  at  others  those  of  pneumonia  will  predominate.  The  special 
pathological  conditions  are  severe  pneumonia  in  various  stages  of 
hepatization  with  multiple  necrosed  areas,  hemorrhagic,  fibrinous 
pleuritis,  and  pericarditis,  and  occasionally  peritonitis  may  be  asso- 
ciated. During  the  height  of  the  disease  there  are  also  marked  enlarge- 
ment and  redness  of  the  lymph  glands  with  hemorrhages  in  them  as 
well  as  in  the  kidneys,  degeneration  of  the  large  organs,  and  occasionally 
icterus. 

It  may  prove  difficult  to  recognize  swine  plague  in  the  living  animal ; 
therefore,  diagnosis  in  some  cases  cannot  be  made  with  any  degree 
of  certainty  except  when  marked  pneumonic  symptoms  (cough)  are 
present.  In  slaughtered  animals  diagnosis  is  verified  by  the  conditions 
described,  by  bacteriologic  examination,  and  through  inoculation 
of  white  mice,  which  die  in  from  one  to  three  days'  time.  Only  in 


HOG  CHOLERA  309 

acute  forms  of  swine  plague  are  bacteria  found  in  the  blood,  while  in 
chronic  cases  they  are  only  present  in  parts  affected,  though  according 
to  Junack  it  is  impossible  to  find  bacteria  in  about  one-third  of  all 
the  cases  diagnosticated  as  chronic  swine  plague.  Certain  types  of 
the  Bacillus  suisepticus  develop  long  forms  in  addition  to  short  forms, 
but  they  do  not  occur  in  the  animal  body. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — In  differential  diagnosis  the  following  diseases 
come  into  consideration: 

1 .  Swine  erysipelas,  in  acute  cases  of  swine  plague,  where  red  colora- 
tion of  the  skin  also  occurs,  but  is  present  only  in  those  parts  of  the 
body  involved  by  the  disease.    In  swine  erysipelas  there  are  no  char- 
acteristic pulmonary  changes  of  swine  plague ;  and  finally,  the  bacterio- 
logic  and    bacterioscopic   findings  'will    establish  the  nature  of    the 
infection. 

2.  Hog  cholera  in  its  initial  stages,  when  the  intestinal  changes  are 
not  yet  well  developed  or  when  mixed  infection  exists,  which  rapidly 
terminates  the  life  of  the  animal. 

3.  Tuberculosis   after   the   inflammatory   changes   have   run   their 
course.     In  swine  plague  there  are  no  characteristic  multiple  infec- 
tions of  the  lymphatic  glands  as  in  tuberculosis,  the  areas  of  caseation 
or  necrotic  areas  of  the  lungs  being  without  new  formation  of  granula- 
tion tissue  at  the  periphery;  nor  are  those  peculiar  secondary  nodules 
of  tuberculosis  present  in  the  vicinity. 

4.  Verminous  pneumonias  which  occur  en  masse  and  may  be  readily 
recognized  by  the  presence  of  parasites. 

5.  Traumatic  pneumonias  lead  to  gangrene,  as  a  rule,  and  are  found 
in  the  main  lobes  of  the  lung. 

Judgment. — For  the  judgment  of  swine  plague  carcasses,  see  page  312. 

Pyobacillosis  of  Pigs. — Pyobacillosis,  pyemic  cachexia  of  pigs,  occurs  in 
young  hogs  quite  frequently  as  a  non-acute  disease,  and  is  caused  by  the  Bacillus 
pyogenes  suis,  which  is  viewed  by  Grips,  Nieberle,  and  Glage  as  belonging  to 
swine  plague.  The  disease  is  characterized  by  catarrhal  changes  or  suppura- 
tive  catarrh  of  the  intestines  and  air  passages,  associated  with  serofibrinous 
inflammation  of  the  pleura,  pericardium,  and  peritoneum,  as  well  as  by  suppura- 
tive  or  caseated  changes  in  the  lungs,  with  hepatization  and  atelectasis  in  their 
vicinity.  A  generalization  of  the  pyobacillus  and  suppurations  in  the  joints, 
bones,  tendon  sheaths,  muscles,  body  lymph  glands,  mammae,  etc.,  are  also 
observed. 

In  the  judgment  of  pyobacillosis,  its  form  of  appearance  and  the  nutritive 
condition  of  the  animal  must  be  taken  into  consideration.  As  the  latter  is 
often  greatly  impaired,  the  entire  carcass  usually  must  be  condemned,  and 
this  is  also  the  case  where  the  suppurative  changes  are  generalized. 

As  pigs  are  rarely  slaughtered  while  affected  with  pyobacillosis,  but,  as  a  rule, 
die  of  the  disease,  the  importance  of  meat  inspection  is  not  significant  in  this 
disease. 

[In  the  United  States  carcasses  of  pigs  affected  with  pyobacillosis  should 
be  judged  on  the  same  principles  as  pyemia,  and,  therefore,  should  be  con- 
demned.] 

Hog  Cholera. — Hog  cholera,  or  swine  fever,  is  an  infectious  disease 
of  hogs  which  runs  partly  an  acute  and  partly  a  chronic  course;  it  is 


310     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

characterized  by  marked  lesions  in  the  digestive  apparatus  and  an  infil- 
tration of  the  l3rmph  apparatus,  especially  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 
In  many  instances  the  disease  occurs  complicated  with  swine  plague. 
Pathogenesis. — Until  quite  recently  the    Bacillus  suipestifer,  whose 
portal  of  entry  is  the  digestive  tract,  has  been  accepted  as  the  cause 
of  hog  cholera;  but  recent  investigations  indicated  that  the  disease 
is  due  to  an  ultramicroscopic   filterable   virus,  and 
FIG.  133  that  the  saprophytic  hog  cholera  bacilli  bring  about 

changes  only    secondary  to  the  conditions  produced 
>      /  j     i/|f     as  a  result  of  the  presence  of  the  invisible   virus. 
^  This   is    the    view    of    de    Schweinitz    and    Dorset, 

jjf     McFadyean,  Hutyra,  Ostertag,  and  Stadie.  Schreiber- 
,     ,    ;   *  V        Landsberg  takes  issue  with  these  writers,  and   still 
adheres  to  the  old  theory  that  the  Bacillus  suipestifer 
is  the  exciting  cause  of  the  German  hog  cholera,  and 
HO  cholera  bacilli     ^^  ^  acts  ma^n^  through  the  medium  of  its  meta- 
Pure°8cuiturea  x  fioo     kolic  products.      Schreiber    considers   the   filterable 
diameters.  virus  the  toxin  which  is  formed  by  Bacillus  suipes- 

tifer infection,  which  acts  as  an  aggressin  furthering 
the  infection  and  mobilizing  the  hog  cholera  bacilli  in  the  body. 
Ostertag  and  Stadie  hold  Schreiber's  view  as  incorrect  and  disproved 
by  their  experimental  results.1 

The  Bacillus  suipestifer  (Fig.  133)  is  a  short,  motile,  typhoid-like  bacillus 
with  rounded  ends,  1.2  to  1.5/w  long,  and  0.6/^  wide.  The  bacilli  lie  singty  or 
arranged  in  pairs  and  possess  flagella.  The  latter  may  be  indistinctly  visible 
if  the  specimens  are  stained  with  Loffler's  flagella  stain.  The  bacilli  stain 
best  with  Loffler's  alkaline  methylene  blue  solution.  The  swine-pest  bacilli 
are  most  readily  found  in  the*  mesenteric  lymph  glands.  In  more  advanced 
necrotic  changes  resulting  from  hog  cholera  the  necrosis  bacilli  also  come  into 
consideration  (Bang,  Preisz,  Karlinski,  Ostertag,  Kitt). 

As  a  result  of  the  invasion  of  the  organism  by  the  hog  cholera  bacilli 
there  occur,  according  to  the  virulence  of  the  bacilli  and  the  resistance 
of  the  tissues,  either  hemorrhagic  intestinal  inflammations  with  infec- 
tion of  the  blood  and  a  rapidly  lethal  course,  or  chronic  forms  with 
marked  destruction  of  the  intestinal  canal  and  mesenteric  lymph 
glands. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  in  the  develop- 
ment of  hog  cholera  vary.  In  acute  cases  there  are  fever,  diarrhea, 
red  petechia  of  the  skin,  with  exanthemata  on  the  ears,  nose  (snout), 
the  inner  surfaces  of  the  thighs  and  around  the  anus,  suppurative  con- 
junctivitis, great  weakness,  and  debility.  In  the  less  rapid  course 
variable  symptoms  arise  (constipation  and  malodorous,  green  diarrhea), 
those  of  the  intestinal  canal  predominating;  also  emaciation,  weakness, 
chronic  skin  exanthemata  with  crust  formation.  When  complicated 

f1  Hutyra  believes  that  the  invisible  filterable  virus  is  responsible  not  only  for  so-called  hog  cholera, 
but  for  swine  plague  as  well,  and  that  the  respective  bacilli  of  these  previously  considered  separate 
diseases  are  merely  secondary  invaders.] 


HOG  CHOLERA 


311 


FIG.  134 


with  swine  plague,  symptoms  of  chronic  lung  disease  with  dyspnea, 
cough,  etc.,  may  be  observed. 

The  pathological  lesions  in  the  peracute  cases  correspond  to  those 
of  hemorrhagic  septicemia  with  croupous  and  necrotic  changes  of  the 
intestinal  mucosa.  In  less  acute  types  there  is  a  specific  affection  of 
the  colon,  the  mucosa  of  which  presents  croupous-diphtheritic  changes. 
Corresponding  to  the  solitary  and  multiple  lymph  follicles  of  the 
intestinal  mucous  membrane,  there  are 
millet  to  hazelnut-sized,  definitely  cir- 
cumscribed or  confluent  caseous,  yellow, 
button-like  projecting  ulcerations  covered 
with  a  crust-like  dirty  coat  (Fig.  134). 
On  removal  of  the  latter,  the  irregular 
ulcers  are  exposed.  The  ileo-cecal  valve 
especially  is,  as  a  rule,  pathognomonic- 
ally  enlarged  and  caseated  (Ostertag) 
These  changes  are  in  some  cases  recog- 
nizable on  the  exterior  of  the  intestine  as 
prominent  yellowish-gray  spots.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  it  is  by  no  means  uncommon 
to  find  certain  portions  of  the  intestinal 
wall  quite  rigid,  hypertrophic,  or  even  the 
entire  large  intestines  may  be  grown 
together  into  tough,  thick  rolls.  If  such 
is  the  case  there  will,  as  a  rule,  be  found 
fibrous  adhesion  to  the  peritoneum  also. 
Similar  characteristic  areas  and  ulcers 
develop  also  in  the  small  intestines.  The 
mesenteric  glands  are  always  swollen,  of 
a  dark  bluish-red  or  pale  color,  and 
partially  or  entirely  caseated.  Similar 
changes  are  also  usually  observed  in  the 
cervical,  and  occasionally  in  the  pelvic 
lymph  glands.  Croupous-diphtheritic 
membranes  may  also  be  found  on  the 
mucosa  of  the  tongue,  cheeks,  gums, 
tonsils,  pharynx,  and  epiglottis.  The 
spleen  may  be  enlarged  and  injected, 
and  the  kidneys  present  petechial  hemor- 
rhages in  the  cortex. 

If  a  multiple  caseous  pneumonia  is  present,  it  is  an  indication  of  a 
complication  with  swine  plague.  Whether  the  metastatic  bone  and 
joint  caseations  and  suppurations  in  the  chronic  cases  are  a  part  of 
the  descriptive  symptoms  of  hog  cholera  or  of  pyobacillosis  still  remains 
to  be  proved. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — Recognition  of  the  developed  chronic  forms 
of  hog  cholera  is  not  difficult,  but  the  following  diseases  must  be 
considered  in  differential  diagnosis: 


Porti< 


e  intestines  with  lesions 
hog  cholera. 


312      INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

1.  Swine  erysipelas  in  acute  and  peracute  cases  of  hog  cholera.     In 
addition  to  the  absence  of  the  swine  erysipelas  bacilli  there  is  the 
absence  of  the  intense  hemorrhagic  nephritis  and  the  presence  of  intes- 
tinal lesions. 

2.  Tuberculosis  of  the    Digestive   Apparatus — Differentiation    from 
this  disease  is  indicated  by  the  extensive  destruction  of  the  intestinal 
mucous  membrane,  the  total  caseation  of  the  lymph  glands,  the  absence 
of  the  characteristic  tuberculous  nodules  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lesions, 
the  absence  of  calcification  in  the  affected  lymph  glands,  and  the 
absence  of  tuberculous  changes  in  other  organs. 

Judgment  of  the  Meat  in  Swine  Erysipelas,  Swine  Plague,  and  Hog 
Cholera. — In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  meat  of  these  diseased  animals 
has  frequently  been  used  for  food  without  ever  having  incurred  any 
impairment  or  injury  to  man,  it  can  hardly  be  classed  as  injurious  to 
health ;  in  individual  cases,  however,  the  following  should  be  considered : 

1.  The  entire  carcass  is  unfit  for  food  as  soon  as  marked  substantial 
changes  (congestion  of  blood,  serous  infiltration,  degenerations,  yellow 
discoloration)  of  the  musculature  or  fatty  tissue  are  observed,  or  when 
marked  emaciation  has  occurred. 

2.  In  all  other  cases,  with  the  exception  of  the  chronic  forms  of 
swine  plague  and  the  sequelae  of  this  disease  and  those  of  hog  cholera, 
the  carcass  in  all  three  of  these  diseases  is  to  be  considered  fit  for  food, 
but  subject  to  certain  conditions.     For  veterinary  sanitary  reasons 
and  partly  in  consideration  of  the  presence  of  the  causative  agents 
in  the  blood  of  cases  of  swine  erysipelas,  swine  plague,  and  the  acute 
forms  of   hog  cholera,  the  meat  and   fat  are  to  be  boiled,  steamed 
(rendered  into  lard),  or  pickled.    The  portions  affected  by  the  disease 
should  be  condemned. 

3.  In  case  of  slow  chronic  forms  of  swine  plague,  without  disturb- 
ance of  the  general  condition,  or  sequelae  of  this  disease  (adhesions, 
cicatrices,  capsulated  caseated  areas,  etc.),  or  of  hog  cholera  (caseation 
of  the  mesenteric  lymphatic  glands,  adhesions  of  intestines,  formation 
of  cicatrices  in  the  intestinal  mucosa),  only  the  affected  portions  of 
the  meat  are  to  be  condemned  and  destroyed.    The  remainder  of  the 
carcass  is  fit  for  food  without  any  restriction. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Order  150,  Regulation  13,  Section  13, 
Paragraphs  1  to  4,  carcasses  which  are  well  nourished,  showing  only 
slight  and  limited  lesions  of  hog  cholera  or  swine  plague  may  be  passed ; 
those  showing  well-marked  and  progressive  lesions  shall  be  condemned, 
while  those  carcasses  in  which  the  lesions  are  more  extensive  than 
those  of  carcasses  to  be  passed,  yet  not  sufficiently  severe  for  condemna- 
tion, may  be  rendered  into  lard,  provided  they  are  cooked  by  steam 
for  four  hours  at  a  temperature  not  lower  than  220°  F.,  or  at  a  pressure 
of  four  pounds.] 

4.  For  the  judgment  of  urticaria,  see  page  307. 

Veterinary  Police  Regulation.— In  compliance  with  the  decree  of 
the  Imperial  Chancellor,  dated  September  8,  1898,  every  case  of  swine 
erysipelas,  swine  plague,  and  hog  cholera  is  to  be  reported,  in  all  parts 


CONTAGIOUS  PLEURO-PNEUMONIA  OF  CATTLE  313 

of  the  Empire,  to  the  police  authorities  at  the  nearest  point  to  where 
they  occur.  Non- veterinary  inspectors  may,  under  the  inspection 
regulations  of  the  Imperial  meat-inspection  law,  inspect  only  light  forms 
of  swine  erysipelas,  provided  the  local  government  permits  the  exercise 
of  this  function  (for  instance,  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony  prohibits  such 
action) . 

CONTAGIOUS  PLEUROPNEUMONIA  OF  CATTLE 

This  epizootic  disease  of  the  lungs  is  a  chronic,  contagious  pleuro- 
pneumonia  peculiar  to  cattle.  [It  was  eradicated  from  the  United 
States  in  1892.] 

Pathogenesis.— The  cause  of  the  disease,  according  to  Nocard  and 
Roux,  seems  to  be  minute,  motile  microorganisms  of  indefinite  mor- 
phology, which  enter  the  lungs  by  the  air  passages  and  gradually 
produce  progressive  pleuropneumonia,  beginning  in  the  connective 
tissue  of  the  lungs. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Since  the  clinical  symptoms  of  this  disease, 
when  occurring  in  isolated  cases,  can  never  be  diagnosticated  on  ante- 
mortem  inspection,  they  will  not  be  discussed  here. 

The  anatomical  lesions,  however,  are  quite  characteristic  (Plate 
II,  Fig.  2).  The  unilateral  inflammation  of  the  lungs  is  superficially 
recognized  by  a  varying  grade  of  pleuritis  and  the  coarse  condition 
of  the  changed  portion  of  the  lung,  which  contains  no  air.  Section 
of  the  diseased  area  will  reveal  marked  proliferation  of  the  interlobular 
connective  tissue,  which  will  be  found  thick,  gelatinous,  intermixed 
with  fibrinous,  grayish-yellow  bands,  about  2  cm.  wide,  separating 
the  compressed  lung  lobules  and  the  lobules  of  the  adjoining  lung  sec- 
tions. The  diseased  lobules  may  appear  singly  or  in  groups  with  varying 
degrees  of  inflammation,  while  fresh  inflammatory  lobules  will  be 
seen  lying  beside  older  forms.  Hyperemic,  edematous,  and  bright  red 
hepatized  lobules  alternate  with  dark  red,  liver-like  lobules,  and  with 
some  which  show  a  grayish-yellow  to  grayish-brown  color.  The  latter 
are  cloudy,  dry,  and  point  to  an  early  stage  of  necrosis,  which  may 
lead  to  sequestration  of  smaller  or  larger  lung  areas.  As  a  result  of 
the  condition  just  described,  the  lung  presents  a  marbled  appearance 
on  section  (Plate  II,  Fig.  2).  The  inflammation  of  the  pulmonary  pleura 
extends  also  to  the  other  pleural  surfaces,  in  advanced  cases  of  the 
disease,  and  leads  to  extensive  fibrin  deposits,  adhesions,  and  collections 
of  exudate  within  the  pleural  sac. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — Pleuropneumonia  is  recognized  quite  readily 
when  the  above-mentioned  pathologic  lesions  are  present.  Only  in 
quite  recently  formed  cases  will  any  difficulty  of  diagnosis  be  met,  and 
in  these  great  care  should  be  exercised  on  account  of  the  grave  conse- 
quences which  might  follow  an  error  in  diagnosis. 

Pleuropneumonia  may  be  mistaken  for — 

1.  Foreign  body  (traumatic)  pneumonia,  which  occurs  either  at  one 
particular  point  only  or  in  multiple  places,  and  may  also  present  a 


314     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

marbled  appearance.  Here  the  foreign  body  may  be  demonstrated, 
however;  and  in  the  latter  case  the  widely  distributed  areas  will  not 
suggest  pleuropneumonia. 

2.  Genuine  croupous  pneumonia,  which,  however,  is  rare,  usually 
occurs  on  the  right  side  and  presents  uniform  processes  throughout. 

3.  Hemorrhagic  septicemia  of  cattle  in  the  pectoral  form.     Here  the 
rapid  clinical  course  and  the  anatomically  uniform  acute  pulmonary 
inflammation    differentiates  it  from    pleuropneumonia.       Mice    and 
rabbits   die   of  hemorrhagic   septicemia   within   twelve   to   thirty-six 
hours  after  inoculation. 

4.  Contagious  bronchopneumonia  of  calces,  which  occurs  as  a  lobular 
catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  lung  without  involving  the  interlobular 
tissue. 

5.  Pneumonomycosis ,  which  is  readily  recognized  microscopically. 
Judgment. — As  the  meat  of  animals  suffering  from  pleuropneumonia 

is  not  harmful  to  man  as  food,  it  may  be  declared  serviceable  after 
removal  of  the  diseased  portions,  provided  emaciation,  fever,  serosity, 
and  other  conditions  of  the  meat  do  not  impair  its  value.  It  would 
be  necessary  to  condemn  the  carcass  only  exceptionally  in  cases  of 
pronounced  emaciation  with  serosity. 

[Contagious  pleuropneumonia  of  cattle  does  not  exist  at  the  present 
time  in  the  United  States  and  as  the  regulations  governing  the  importa- 
tion of  cattle  prescribe  a  quarantine  of  thirty  days,  counting  from  the 
date  of  arrival  at  the  quarantine  station,  which  constitutes  the  longest 
period  for  the  incubation  of  this  contagion,  it  is  not  likely  that  the 
disease  will  reappear  in  this  country,  and  accordingly  it  is  not  of  any 
great  interest  in  meat  inspection.] 

Veterinary  Police  Regulations. — The  occurrence  of  the  disease  is 
to  be  immediately  reported  and  the  entire  carcass  confiscated.  Regula- 
tions require  that  the  lungs  be  buried  at  the  depth  of  one  meter,  and 
that  the  meat  be  not  removed  from  the  infected  premises  until  it  has 
been  cooled  thoroughly,  and  that  the  hides  should  also  be  retained  until 
they  have  been  completely  dried,  unless  they  are  turned  over  directly 
to  a  tannery. 

BLACKLEG 

Symptomatic  anthrax  or  blackleg  may  attack  cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
very  rarely  horses,  and  also  hogs,  but  this  infectious  disease  is 
usually  restricted  to  certain  localities.  Blackleg  is  characterized  by 
the  formation  of  gas-containing  swellings  in  the  subcutis,  which  rapidly 
spread. 

Pathogenesis. — Blackleg  is  caused  by  anaerobic  bacilli,  which  enter 
the  organism  through  abrasions  of  the  skin  or  mucous  membrane. 

The  bacilli  measure  3  to  6  p  in  length  and  0.5  to  0.7  //  in  width,  are  motile 
as  long  as  they  have  not  developed  spores,  and  stain  readily;  they  do  not  stain 
by  Gram's  method,  however.  They  are  never  found  in  the  circulating  blood, 
but  always  in  the  subcutaneous  and  intermuscular  connective  tissue  (Fig.  135). 


Blackleg  bacilli  with  spores.   Muscle 


BLACKLEG  315 

After  the  bacilli  have  gained  entrance  into  the  body  there  develop 
crepitating,  rapidly  spreading  swellings  in  the  connective  tissue,  espe- 
cially at  the  neck,  shoulders,  beneath  the  breast,  thigh,  flanks,  and 
more  rarely  at  the  gums,  base  of  tongue 
and  wall  of  the  pharynx,  accompanied  FlG-  135 

by  severe  general  febrile  symptoms. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions.  —  The  symp- 
toms in  the  living  animal  correspond  to 
the  preceding  description.  Anatomically 
the  subcutis  and  the  intermuscular  con- 
nective tissue  beneath  the  partly  necrosed 
skin  appear  of  a  yellowish  color,  bloody, 
permeated  by  air  bubbles  and  of  an  offen- 
sive odor,  which  in  many  instances  is 
similar  to  that  of  rancid  butter.  At  these 
points  the  musculature  is  a  muddy  brown- 
ish red,  crepitating,  and  very  juicy;  the 
corresponding  lymphatic  glands  contain 
a  bloody,  serous  infiltration,  are  swollen,  Hutyra  and 
and  contain  hemorrhagic  areas.  The  latter 

are  also  found  under  the  serosa.  Serosanguinolent  extravasations  or 
exudates  in  the  body  cavities  and  occasionally  perirenal  and  mesenteric 
bloody  gelatinous  infiltrations  are  noted.  Degenerations  of  the  heart, 
liver,  and  kidneys  occur,  wrhile  the  spleen  and  blood  remain  un- 
changed. 

Differential  Diagnosis.  —  Blackleg  is  easily  recognized  in  differential 
diagnosis.  The  following  diseases  must  be  considered: 

1.  Malignant  edema,  which  need  rarely  be  differentiated  clinically 
from   blackleg.     Anatomically,  attention  should   be   directed   to   the 
foul  necrotic  odor  of  the  edematous  swellings,  the  more  plump  mor- 
phology of  the  edema  bacillus  (page  296),  which  in  addition  possesses 
spores  in  the  centre  of  the  organism  and  not  at  end,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  blackleg  bacillus.     The  latter  do  not  develop  into  threads 
in  the  cadaver,  like  edema  bacilli. 

2.  Anthrax.  —  The  clinical  course  of  this  disease  differs  considerably 
from  that  of  blackleg,  and  in  the  slaughtered  animal  the  blood  and 
spleen  alterations,  as  well  as  the  demonstration  of  the  bacillus  of  anthrax, 
serve  to  differentiate  it  from  blackleg. 

3.  Mechanical  subcutaneous  emphysema,  which  clinically  and  ana- 
tomically differs  entirely,  particularly  in  that  it  produces  no  necrosis 
of  the  skin. 

4.  Phlegmons  of  the  subcutis  as  a  result  of  pyogenic  wound  infec- 
tion run  a  much  slower  course  than  blackleg  and  remain  localized. 

Judgment.  —  If  blackleg  is  found  on  antemortem  inspection,  or  if 
it  is  even  suspected,  slaughtering  of  the  animal  is  to  be  forbidden. 
The  meat  of  animals  suffering  from  blackleg,  although  not  injurious 
to  man,  must  be  condemned  on  account  of  the  marked  substantial 
changes  therein,  and  is  not  to  be  considered  fit  for  human  food. 


316     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

Veterinary  Police  Regulations. — In  this  respect  blackleg  is  to  be 
treated  just  like  anthrax  (see  page  285),  since  in  almost  all  states 
compulsory  notification  is  required  of  all  cases  that  may  arise. 

That  the  so-called  "parturient  blackleg"  is  not  true  blackleg,  but  a  form  of 
malignant  edema,  has  already  been  stated  on  page  296. 

Reindeer  pest  is  quite  similar  to  blackleg,  and  this  is  mentioned  on  account 
of  the  fact  that  no  inconsiderable  quantities  of  reindeer  meat  are  imported 
into  Germany.  In  reindeer  pest  there  is  found  gas  formation  in  the  subcutis, 
the  intramuscular,  subpleural,  and  subperitoneal  tissues,  and  especially  abun- 
dant beneath  the  renal  capsule.  As  compared  with  blackleg  it  is  found  that 
reindeer  pest  differs  also  in  the  presence  of  abundant  gas  formation  in  the 
internal  organs.  The  cause  of  reindeer  pest,  according  to  Lundgren  and  Berg- 
man, are  aerobic  rods,  thinner  than  those  of  blackleg  or  anthrax  bacilli,  forming 
spores  either  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end,  and  staining  by  Gram's  method.  On 
account  of  the  great  similarity  to  blackleg  the  meat  of  animals  affected  with 
reindeer  pest  is  to  be  judged  like  that  of  blackleg. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Regulations  carcasses  of  animals  showing 
lesions  of  blackleg  should  be  condemned.] 


BRADSOT 

The  disease  called  bradsot  (rapid  plague),  or  braxy,  is  an  acute 
infectious  disease  of  sheep,  which  originated  in  Iceland,  Norway, 
Scotland,  and  occurs  in  Germany,  according  to  Peters,  in  Mecklen- 
burg, Pommerania,  and  recently  also  in  Middle  Germany  (Dam- 
mann  and  Oppermann,  R.  Froehner).  It  occurs  almost  exclusively 
during  the  winter  months,  particularly  in  young  animals,  and  in  its 
nature  it  is  a  gastromycosis. 

Pathogenesis. — Bradsot  is  produced  by  the  Bacillus  gastromycosis  ovis 
(Nielsen),  an  anaerobic,  slender,  motile  schizomycetes,  which  stains  by  Gram's 
method.  It  forms  central  or  polar  spores,  and  is  frequently  found  arranged 
end  to  end. 

The  entrance  of  the  bacillus  into  the  digestive  tract  produces  a  hemorrhagic, 
abomaso-duodenal  inflammation  followed  by  general  infection  or  intoxication. 

Pathology. — On  account  of  the  frequent  peracute  course  of  the 
disease  clinical  symptoms,  such  as  debility,  gnashing  of  teeth,  difficulties 
of  respiration,  coma,  and  tympanitis,  are  rarely  observed.  The  ana- 
tomical changes  have  been  described  in  the  pathogenesis.  In  addition 
to  these,  there  occur  occasionally  fibrinous  infiltrations  of  the  sub- 
cutaneous connective  tissues,  with  gas  formation  and  serosanguinolent 
exudates  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  Decomposition  sets  in  quickly. 

Judgment. — Although  injury  to  human  health  is  unlikely  as  the 
result  of  ingestion  of  meat  from  sheep  affected  with  "bradsot,"  as 
has  been  noted  by  certain  observers,  it  is  necessary  to  condemn  it  on 
account  of  the  severe  general  infection  or  intoxication  which  is  present. 

In  view  of  the  rapid  course  of  the  disease,  it  is  not  likely  that  many 
sheep  affected  with  this  disease  will  be  brought  to  abattoirs  for  slaughter. 


RINDERPEST  317 

[Bradsot  has  not  been  observed  in  the  United  States,  and  therefore 
it  is  of  no  interest  in  meat  inspection.  The  occurrence  of  the  disease 
would  naturally  require  a  condemnation  of  the  affected  carcasses  on 
account  of  the  severe  infection  and  intoxication.] 

RINDERPEST  (CATTLE  PLAGUE) 

Cattle  plague  is  an  acute  infectious  disease  peculiar  to  cattle, 
which  may  be  transmitted  to  other  ruminants,  and  occurs  as  a  severe, 
febrile  general  infection  associated  with  inflammation  of  all  mucous 
membranes,  especially  those  of  the  digestive  tract.  The  plague  has  been 
extinct  in  Germany  for  years,  but  might  readily  be  introduced  again 
from  foreign  countries.  [It  has  never  occurred  in  the  United  States.] 
Little  is  known  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  infectious  material. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Clinical  symptoms:  Chills  (rigor),  high 
fever,  marked  depression,  constipation,  and  after  a  few  days  catarrh 
of  all  visible  mucous  membranes,  which  are  stained  scarlet  red,  either 
diffusely  or  in  spots  (petechia) .  Difficulty  in  respiration  and  dysenteric 
feces,  occasionally  mixed  with  blood,  occur  later.  The  visible  mucous 
membranes  show  erosions,  upon  which  grayish-white  crusts  appear, 
and  when  these  are  cast  off  ulcers  become  visible.  As  the  animals 
rapidly  emaciate,  the  secretions  of  the  mucous  membranes  become 
discolored,  pus-like,  malodorous,  and  the  temperature  sinks  to  sub- 
normal. 

The  anatomic  lesions,  according  to  Kitt,  are :  In  the  primary  stages 
hyperemia  and  catarrhal  condition  of  the  mucous  membranes,  then 
croupous-diphtheritic  exudates,  with  marked  hyperemia,  particularly 
along  the  entire  digestive  tract,  and  at  the  orifice  of  the  female  genitals ; 
occasionally  simultaneous  croupous  exudate  in  the  bronchi  occurs. 
To  these  are  added  ecchymosis  of  the  heart  and  exanthema  of  the 
skin.  The  third  stomach  is  frequently  filled  with  very  dry,  powdered 
fodder;  the  gall-bladder  is  usually  full  and  distended;  parenchyma 
degenerated;  musculature  wasted,  soft,  and  filled  with  small  blood 
extravasations. 

Diagnosis. — In  order  to  recognize  cattle  plague,  which  is  exceedingly 
difficult  in  isolated  cases,  all  of  the  diagnostic  factors  must  be  most 
carefully  considered,  such  as  the  symptom-complex,  autopsy  findings, 
the  course  of  the  plague,  and  its  history. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — It  may  be  mistaken  for: 

1 .  Malignant  catarrhal  fever,  in  which,  however,  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  head,  the  respiratory  apparatus,  and  the  eyes  are  particu- 
larly involved,  and  in  which  the  viscera  are  intact.     It  usually  occurs 
only  enzootically. 

2.  Dysentery  and  Mycotic  Enteritis. — Here  the  intestinal  symptoms 
predominate  and  the  other  pest  symptoms  are  absent. 

3.  Poisoning,  Especially  Mercurial  and  Caustic  Poisons. — Here  the 
contagion  is  absent,  and  the  generalized  croupous-diphtheritic  inflam- 
mation of  the  mucous  membranes  is  also  lacking. 


318     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 

4.  Infectious  hemoglobinuria  of  cattle  (page  263),  when  on  postmortem 
examination  of  cattle  which  have  died  from  this  disease  ulcers  and 
lamellar  deposits  are  found  in  the  abomasum  and  duodenum  (Hutyra- 
Marek).  There  is,  however,  an  absence  of  the  changes  in  the  oral 
mucous  membranes,  the  air  passages  and  genitals,  while  the  hemo- 
globin-containing urine  will  attract  attention. 

Judgment. — The  killing  or  slaughtering  of  animals  affected  with 
cattle  plague  or  those  suspected  of  having  this  disease  is  to  be  pro- 
hibited. Although  the  meat  of  cattle-plague  animals  has  been  proved 
to  be  harmless  to  man  when  used  for  food,  it  must  nevertheless,  be 
destroyed  or  declared  unfit  for  food  on  account  of  the  great  danger 
in  spreading  the  disease.  It  should  be  buried  in  accordance  with  regula- 
tions of  the  rinderpest  law  of  April  7,  1869. 

[As  the  disease  does  not  exist  in  the  United  States,  there  are  no  pro- 
visions made  in  the  regulations  for  the  judgment  of  animals  affected 
with  rinderpest;  it  is,  however  self-evident  that  the  occurrence  of 
the  disease  would  require  condemnation  of  the  affected  carcasses  with 
strict  veterinary  police  regulations  to  prevent  its  spread.] 


VESICULAR  EXANTHEMA  OF  HORSES  AND  CATTLE 

This  contagious  disease  of  the  genital  organs,  which  occasionally  produces 
a  constitutional  disturbance,  is  mentioned  here  only  on  account  of  its  veterinary 
police  (sanitary)  importance. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — Marked  redness  and  swelling  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  vagina,  prepuce,  and  penis,  itching,  slight  discharge  and  strangury, 
development  of  delicately  covered  vesicles  of  sizes  from  a  milletseed  to  a  dime, 
which  burst  and  change  into  superficial  ulcers.  They  form  brownish  crusts  and 
heal,  leaving  white  cicatrices.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  observe  the  symp- 
toms in  bulls,  since  only  fine  erosions  and  small  vesicles  appear  on  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  prepuce.  In  severe  cases  there  occur  confluent,  deeper  pene- 
trating ulcers,  with  suppuration  and  foul  pus,  more  marked  discharge,  and 
swelling  of  the  surrounding  parts  as  well  as  grave  febrile  general  disturbance. 

Judgment. — The  meat  of  animals  afflicted  with  vesicular  exanthema  is 
generally  fit  for  food;  in  severe  cases,  which,  however,  are  rarely  brought  for 
slaughter,  the  grade  of  the  disease  and  complications  present  decide  whether 
the  meat  is  to  be  declared  of  impaired  value  or  to  be  entirely  condemned. 

The  veterinary  police  regulations  require  report  of  such  cases  and  retention 
of  the  diseased  portions  for  examination  by  the  veterinarian  in  charge. 

[In  the  meat  inspection  of  the  United  States  carcasses  of  cattle 
affected  with  vesicular  exanthema  may  be  passed  for  food,  provided 
the  disease  has  not  caused  general  systemic  disturbances  and  the 
lesions  are  confined  to  the  genital  organs,  which  should  be  condemned.] 

For  contagious  vaginal  catarrh  or  granular  vaginitis,  see  page  218. 

HEMORRHAGIC  SEPTICEMIA  (GAME  AND  CATTLE  PLAGUE) 

This  disease,  belonging  to  the  group  of  septicemia  hsemorrhagica 
(Hueppe),  occasionally  occurs  epizootically  in  cattle,  deer,  and  black 
game,  and  in  isolated  cases  may  be  transmitted  to  the  horse,  goat, 


HEMORRHAGIC  SEPTICEMIA  319 

and  hog.  It  appears  in  pectoral  and  exanthematous  forms,  though 
both  may  occur  together. 

Pathogenesis. — The  cause  of  this  disease  (Bacillus  [bipolaris]  bovi- 
septicus),  which  simulates  that  of  swine  plague,  may  gain  entrance  to 
the  organism  in  various  ways,  corresponding  to  the  above-mentioned 
forms  of  the  disease.  According  to  Dammann  and  Oppermann  a 
species  of  gnat  (Simulia  ornata)  is  the  intermediate  host  in  the 
transmission  of  this  affection.  The  bacilli  produce  local  inflammations, 
and  passing  into  the  blood  create  various  changes  resembling  the 
course  of  sepsis. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  cattle  the  exanthematous  form  is  the 
most  frequent.  The  clinical  symptoms  are  the  rapidly  developing 
warm  swellings  of  the  subcutis  of  the  head  and  neck,  with  high  fever 
and  difficult  respiration.  Anatomically  there  are  sanguinogelatinous 
exudations  at  the  head  and  neck,  marked  swelling  of  the  retropharyngeal 
and  cervical  lymphatic  glands,  cloudy  swelling  of  the  large  viscera,  and 
hemorrhages  into  most  organs. 

The  pectoral  form,  which  predominates  in  game,  runs  the  clinical 
and  anatomic  course  of  severe  croupous  pleuropneumonia,  with 
marked  dyspnea.  The  above-mentioned  hemorrhages  are  never 
absent. 

In  both  forms  there  also  exists  marked  hemorrhagic  enteritis,  which 
is  noticeable  clinically  by  bloody  discharges  in  addition  to  the  severe 
general  constitutional  condition.  These  intestinal  forms  or  symptoms 
were  formerly  described  as  a  special  intestinal  form  of  game  and 
cattle  plague. 

The  positive  recognition  of  the  plague  intra  mtam  is  oftentimes 
impossible,  though  per  post  mortem  it  is  quite  easy.  The  presence  of 
the  bacteria,  inoculation  of  rabbits  and  mice,  and  feeding  infectious 
material  to  birds,  causing  death  to  all  within  twelve  to  thirty-six 
hours,  confirm  the  diagnosis. 

Differential  Diagnosis.— It  might  be  mistaken  for: 

1.  Anthrax. — In  hemorrhagic  septicemia  the  marked  splenic  changes 
are  absent,  and  the  blood  alterations  and  anthrax  bacilli  as  well. 

2.  Pleuropneumonia. — From  this  disease  the  uniform  age  and  syn- 
chronicity  of  all  the  diffuse  pneumonic  areas  in  game  and  cattle  plague 
differ  considerably. 

3.  Malignant    edema,    blackleg,    and    rinderpest,    whose    differential 
diagnostic  features  have  already  been  cited. 

Judgment. — The  slaughter  of  animals  affected  with  hemorrhagic 
septicemia  is  prohibited,  and  they  are  to  be  treated  like  those  affected 
with  anthrax.  In  some  states  the  occurrence  of  this  disease  must  be 
reported. 

In  view  of  the  danger  in  spreading  contagion,  the  entire  carcass  is 
to  be  condemned,  although  the  ingestion  of  the  meat  by  man  is  not 
dangerous  to  health. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I. .Regulations,  carcasses  of  animals  affected  with 
hemprrhagic  septicemia  shall  be  condemned.] 


320     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


MALIGNANT  CATARRHAL  FEVER  OF  CATTLE 

This  miasmatic  infectious  disease  peculiar  to  cattle  is  characterized 
by  marked  inflammation  of  all  mucous  membranes  of  the  head  and 
eyes,  accompanied  by  severe  constitutional  and  cerebral  disturbances. 
[It  is  also  called  malignant  epizootic  catarrh.] 

Pathogenesis. — The  still  unknown  infectious  principle  sometimes 
causes  in  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  symptoms,  a  more  extensive 
affection  of  the  respiratory  apparatus  as  well  as  croupous-diphtheritic 
inflammation  of  the  digestive  tract,  and  occasionally  vesicular  or  nodule- 
like  skin  exanthemata  (skin  eruptions),  while  nephritis,  cystitis,  and 
colpitis  may  also  occur. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  most  prominent  clinical  symptoms 
are  rapidly  increasing  fever,  marked  fatigue,  impairment  of  sensation, 
muscular  tremors,  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
head,  particularly  those  of  the  eyes,  difficulty  of  respiration,  diarrhea, 
which  may  be  mixed  with  blood,  and  rapid  emaciation.  Predominating 
anatomic  lesions  are  catarrhal  or  hemorrhagic,  later  croupous  and 
diphtheritic  inflammations  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  entire 
respiratory  apparatus,  and  occasionally  also  involving  the  digestive 
apparatus;  great  congestion  of  blood  in  the  cranial  cavity;  marked 
swelling  of  the  lids,  conjunctivitis,  keratitis,  and  even  iritis;  enlarge- 
ment of  the  spleen  and  cloudy  swelling  of  the  liver  and  kidneys,  which 
are  usually  not  marked;  and  at  times  nephritis,  cystitis,  colpitis,  and 
the  above-mentioned  skin  changes  may  occur. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — The  recognition  of  the  well-developed  cases 
of  malignant  catarrhal  fever  is  not  difficult.  For  differential  diagnosis 
should  be  considered : 

1.  Rinderpest,  in  which  the  affection  of  the  eyes  is  conspicuously 
absent,  and  in  which  the  rapid  course  is  characterized  by  the  pre- 
dominating gastric  symptoms,  while  in  catarrhal  fever  the  affection 
of  the  respiratory  apparatus  is  most  marked.     In  catarrhal  fever  the 
organs  are  only  slightly  involved,  whereas  in  animals  suffering  with 
rinderpest  they  are  greatly  degenerated. 

2.  Mycotic  enteritis,   when   the   intestinal   infection   predominates. 
Here  are  noted,  however,  the  absence  of  marked  depression  symptoms 
and  changes  in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head. 

Judgment. — The  meat  is  not  injurious  to  man  as  food.  It  may, 
however,  have  to  be  condemned  in  advanced  cases  on  account  of  the 
occurring  emaciation  and  the  objective  changes  in  the  meat  (increased 
blood  contents,  etc.) .  In  any  case,  the  meat  is  always  to  be  considered 
impaired  in  nutritive  value. 

[According  to  B.  A.  I.  Regulations,  carcasses  of  animals  affected  with 
malignant  catarrhal  fever  of  malignant  epizootic  catarrh  and  showing 
generalized  inflammation  of  mucous  membranes  shall  be  condemned.] 


NECROTIC  STOMATITIS  OF  CALVES  321 


NECROTIC   STOMATITIS  (DIPHTHERIA)  OF  CALVES 

Diphtheria  of  calves  is  not  related  to  diphtheria  in  man,  and  occurs 
comparatively  infrequently  as  an  infectious  disease  with  rapid  course  of 
development,  characterized  by  the  appearance  of  croupous-diphtheritic 
patches  on  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  oral  cavity. 

Pathogenesis. — The  exciting  cause  of  the  disease  is  the  necrosis  bacillus 
(Bang),  which  appears  as  short  rods  (1.8  to  2.4 //  long,  and  0.6/*  wide),  and 
also  as  filaments  (Fig.  136).  Without  doubt  the  bacillus  also  termed  Bacillus 
necrophorus  gains  admission  through  wounds  or  abrasions,  whereupon  it  effects 
its  further  action  by  way  of  the  blood.  Sepsis  may  be  associated  with  the 
course  of  this  affection. 

FIG.  136 


Bacillus  necrophorus,  showing  coccoid,  bacillary,  and  filamentous  forms. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  are  similar  to  those 
of  foot  and  mouth  disease,  but  in  addition,  cough,  difficulty  of  respira- 
tion, and  diarrhea  occur.  Pathologically  there  are  noted  in  advanced 
cases  croupous-diphtheritic  ulcers  on  the  mucous  membrane  of  the 
mouth,  pharynx,  larynx,  trachea,  stomach,  and  intestinal  canal,  pneu- 
monic areas,  and  also  cloudy  swelling  of  the  internal  organs. 

Recognition  of  necrotic  stomatitis  of  calves  is  based  on  the  above- 
mentioned  findings,  which  are  not  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  anything 
else,  unless  it  be  foot  and  mouth  disease. 

Judgment. — If  the  animals  are  slaughtered  in  the  early  stages,  the 
meat  may  be  considered  as  of  impaired  value;  later,  it  becomes  unfit 
for  food  on  account  of  rapid  emaciation  and  general  constitutional 
symptoms,  which  produce  such  changes  as  to  render  it  unfit  for  food. 
This  is  also  the  case  when  sepsis  has  occurred. 

The  passing  of  a  carcass  for  food  after  condemning  the  diseased 
parts  is  possible  in  Germany,  as  the  animals  are  not  usually  slaughtered 
until  general  constitutional  symptoms  have  set  in. 

[In  accordance  with  meat  inspection  in  the  United  States,  carcasses 
of  animals  with  necrotic  stomatitis  may  be  passed  if  the  lesions  are 
only  local  in  character;  if  there  is  indication  of  toxemia,  associated 
with  emaciation,  the  carcasses  should  be  condemned. 
21 


322     INFECTIOUS  DISEASES  IN  FOOD-PRODUCING  ANIMALS 


DIARRHEA  OR  DYSENTERY  OF  CALVES  (WHITE  SCOUR) 

White  scour  of  calves  is  an  infectious  intestinal  inflammation,  which 
may  occur  also  in  other  sucklings  and  sometimes  appears  enzootically. 

Pathogenesis. — The  exciting  agents  of  dysentery,  according  to  Jensen,  Poels, 
and  Joest,  are  bacteria  belonging  to  the  colon  group,  which  are  facultatively 
pathogenic  and  enter  the  blood  from  the  intestinal  tract,  producing  general 
infection  with  special  localization  in  the  intestinal  canal.1 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — The  clinical  symptoms  possess  no  definite 
characteristics.  Pathologically  there  is  emaciation,  anemia,  reddish, 
blurred  injection  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  abomasum  and  the 
entire  intestinal  tube,  swelling  of  the  mesenteric  glands,  and  sub- 
serous  hemorrhages,  the  musculature  being  flabby,  lusterless,  and  of 
a  muddy  red  color. 

With  the  aid  of  a  microscope  recognition  of  this  disease  is  readily 
accomplished. 

Differential  Diagnosis. — It  is  apt  to  be  mistaken  for— 

1.  Acute  gastric  and  intestinal  catarrhs,  in  which,  however,  the  course 
is  milder,  and  in 'which  the  signs  of  blood  infection  are  lacking. 

2.  Diarrhea  of  septicemia  and  pyemia,  whose  other  symptoms,  how- 
ever, are  usually  easy  of  recognition. 

Judgment. — When  the  calves  are  slaughtered  early  in  the  disease 
their  meat  may  be  permissible  as  food,  though  being  rated  as  of  impaired 
value.  If  a  general  infection  had  already  set  in,  the  meat  will  have  to 
be  declared  unfit  for  food,  on  account  of  the  possibility  of  its  being 
dangerous  to  health.  As  the  bacteria  are  found  in  the  blood  and  rapidly 
multiply  in  the  carcass  (Ostertag),  caution  is  imperative  from  the 
well-known  fact  that  certain  varieties  of  the  colon  bacillus  may  assume 
marked  pathogenic  properties. 

[As  white  scour  in  calves  represents  a  general  infection,  and  since 
the  disease  is  usually  associated  with  general  debility  and  emaciation, 
therefore,"  carcasses  thus  affected  are  condemned  in  the  Federal  inspec- 
tion service.] 


DISTEMPER  AND  INFLUENZA  OF  HORSES 

Diseases  of  horses  coming  under  this  classification  require  no  special  notice 
here  since  they  do  not  necessitate  slaughter  of  the  animals,  because  the  diseases 
in  question  either  run  a  mild  course  or  cause  death  in  severe  cases,  not  bring- 
ing into  question  the  possibility  of  emergency  slaughter.  If  such  an  excep- 
tional case  should  arise,  however,  judgment  of  the  meat  will  not  be  difficult, 
when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  septic  or  pyemic  infections  may  complicate  the 
course  of  distemper,  influenza,  and  pneumonia  of  horses. 

[l  Nocard,  Mettam,  etc.,  consider  the  cause  of  this  disease  to  be  a  pasteurellose,  known  as  the 
B.  bipolaris  septicus.] 


CHAPTER    IX 

POSTMORTEM   CHANGES  OF   MEAT 

THE  first  changes  of  the  animal  tissues  after  death  are  of  a  physico- 
chemical  nature,  such  as  the  appearance  of  coagulation,  changes  of 
color,  changes  in  reaction.  The  appearance  of  coagulation  is  most 
distinctly  marked  in  the  stiffening  of  fat  in  fat  cells,  and  in  the  coagula- 
tion of  myosin  in  striated  muscles.  The  latter  is  probably  brought 
on  by  acid  formation  in  the  muscles,  and  rigor  mortis  is  the  result. 
The  muscles  thus  obtain  an  acid  reaction,  a  condition  which  is  desig- 
nated as  a  simple  souring  of  meat  by  W.  Eber,  who  was  the  first  to 
systematize  the  decomposition  processes  of  meat.  To  this  is  added 
the  sour  fermentation  which  may  occur  in  two  forms: 


FERMENTATION  PROCESSES  IN  MEAT 

Simple  sour  fermentation  begins  with  rigor  mortis  and  produces  the 
so-called  "ripening"  of  the  meat.  The  latter  becomes  more  tender, 
appears  more  juicy  and  gradually  loses  the  quality  to  take  up  a  bright 
scarlet-red  color  on  the  cut  surface.  The  cut  surface  then  becomes 
light  brown  to  yellow.  The  odor  of  the  ripening  meat  is  sourish — 
aromatic.  Later,  traces  of  formation  of  hydrogen  sulphide  (haut  gout) 
may  develop  (W.  Eber,  Glage)  as  a  result  of  the  sulphur  compounds 
present  in  the  meat. 

The  nature  of  ripening  of  meat  consists,  according  to  recent  investigations 
(Salkowski,  Jacoby,  M.  Miiller,  Vogel),  in  fermentation  processes,  which  may  be 
designated  as  an  autodigestion  (Salkowski);  or  autolysis  (Jacoby,  M.  Miiller); 
also  as  a  physiological  destruction  of  the  meat  (Glage). 

Stinking  sour  fermentation  occurs  in  meat  which  could  not  cool 
out.  Thus  it  appears  in  game  which  is  tightly  packed  while  still  con- 
taining body  heat,  or  in  meat  of  slaughtered  animals  if  it  is  piled  up 
without  being  sufficiently  chilled.  The  condition  is  designated  in 
game  as  "overheated;"  in  meat,  as  "suffocated." 

[This  condition  is  termed,  "sour  side"  in  the  United  States,  and  is 
produced  by  hanging  the  sides  too  close  to  each  other  in  the  cooler, 
thus  preventing  the  proper  circulation  of  cooled  air  between  them; 
and  also  by  too  sudden  chilling  of  the  carcass,  whereby  insufficient 
time  is  given  for  gradual  disappearance  of  body  heat.] 

In  game  the  hair  can  be  pulled  out  by  the  handful  from  the  skin, 
the  subcutis  is  colored  green,  and  the  cut  surfaces  of  the  copper-red 


324  POSTMORTEM  CHANGES  OF  MEAT 

colored  muscles  change  in  the  same  way ;  gas  bubbles  may  appear.  The 
last  two  changes  are  also  observed  in  pieces  of  meat  of  food  animals. 
The  stinking  products  contain  large  quantities  of  H2S.  The  determi- 
nation of  fermentation  processes  is  not  difficult  by  these  described 
changes.  The  presence  of  an  acid  reaction  is  necessary,  and  the  absence 
of  ammonia  (see  Demonstration  of  Putrefaction). 

[The  recent  investigations  of  McBryde  show  that  ham  souring  as 
encountered  in  the  wet  cure,  where  the  hams  are  entirely  submerged 
in  pickling  fluids,  is  due  to  the  growth  of  the  Bacillus  putrefaciens 
within  the  bodies  of  the  hams.] 

Judgment. — While  meat  in  a  state  of  simple  sour  fermentation  is 
suitable  for  human  consumption,  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  designated 
in  that  condition  as  "table  ripe;"  on  the  other  hand,  meat  showing 
the  slightest  trace  of  stinking  sour  fermentation  should  be  considered 
highly  spoiled,  and  be  condemned,  as  injurious  to  health. 

[The  above  judgment  applies  also  to  meat  inspection  in  the  United 
States.] 

PUTREFACTION   OF   MEAT 

Putrefaction  of  meat  is  a  bacterial  decomposition,  which  by  adequate 
treatment,  curing  or  preserving,  may  be  checked.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  above  all  superinduced  by  heat  and  moisture.  The  last  two  factors 
facilitate  the  growth  of  putrefactive  microorganisms. 

Nature  and  Development. — Obligatory  anaerobic  bacteria  come  into  considera- 
tion as  agents  of  putrefaction,  especially  the  Bacillus  putrificus  (Bienstock), 
Bacillus  edematis  maligni  (page  296),  Bacillus  gangrcence  emphysematosce 
(page  314),  for  whose  existence  and  development  satisfactory  conditions  are 
produced  on  the  surface  of  the  meat  through  abstraction  of  oxygen  by  the 
aerobic  bacteria.  Of  the  aerobic  bacteria  in  putrefactive  meat,  there  may  be 
found  staphylococci,  Bacterium  coli,  species  of  proteus  (Figs.  137  and  138), 
and  bacteria,  which  greatly  resemble  the  Bacillus  enteritidis,  Gartner.  The 
Bacillus  paraputrificus  (Bienstock)  retards  putrefaction. 

The  action  of  putrefactive  microorganisms  consists  in  the  decomposition 
of  albuminous  bodies  and  gelatinous  substances,  which  are  broken  up  under 
the  formation  of  gases  of  a  disagreeable  odor.  The  freer  the  access  of  oxygen 
to  the  putrefactive  meat,  the  quicker  and  more  completely  decomposition 
progresses  (rotting).  With  an  insufficient  supply  of  air,  a  stinking  putrefac- 
tion develops.  As  end  products  of  putrefactive  decomposition  there  develop, 
according  to  Gotschlich: 

1.  Gases  (C02,  CH4,  H2,  N2,  NH3,  H,S). 

2.  Fatty  acids  (formic,  acetic,  butyric,  valerianic,  palmitic  acid). 

3.  Oxy — and  other  basic  acids  (lactic — succinic — oxalic  acid). 

4.  Various  other  substances  (amines,  amides,  amidoacids,  leucin,  tyrosin, 
aromatic  acids,  indol,  scatol,  peptone,  ptomains,  toxins). 

Toxins  appear  to  assume  the  properties  of  strong  poisons  only  in  the  presence 
of  a  free  supply  of  air  (Nielson) . 

Lesions. — Putrefaction,  as  a  rule,  begins  on  the  surface  of  meat 
and  penetrates  the  deep  parts,  following  the  course  of  the  connective 
tissue.  The  muscle  fibers  proper  resist  putrefaction  for  some  time. 


PUTREFACTION  OF  MEAT 


325 


Meat  of  animals  which  had  febrile  affection,  or  that  of  insufficiently 
bled  animals,  putrefies  more  quickly  than  flesh  of  healthy  animals. 
Stinking,  putrefactive,  malodorous  substances  do  riot  necessarily 
appear,  as  has  been  stated  already,  in  all  putrefactions;  besides,  they 
vary  considerably  in  accordance  with  the  kind  of  meat.  In  putrid 
meat  sausages  and  salted  meat,  stinking  odors  are  sometimes  entirely 
absent.  Some  of  the  putrefactive  odors  appear  more  pronounced  in 
treating  meat,  with  acids  or  alkalies ;  some  again  are  uninfluenced  by 
such  treatment.  Marked  changes  of  color  (turning  gray,  yellow,  green) 
are  not  always  characteristic.  Changes  in  the  consistence  appear 
noticeable  only  in  advanced  stages  of  putrefaction,  and  then  the  meat 


FIG.  137 


4^      8  ^  J  ^\l  ^X-ip/^' 
>.  ^  -    \^p^cjk^3^}    \  £  & 

i  v    *-  jjv-~v^r  r     rs^          d 

^m%%W^ 


"^soajr  g 

tfmmfttx 


Proteus  vulgaris.     From  a  pure  culture.    X 
730  diameters.     (After  Weichselbaum.) 

appears  sloppy,  smeary,  and 
porous.  Alkalinity  alone  is 
no  criterion  of  putrefaction, 
but  it  ma'y  always  be  present. 
Putrefactive  toxins  are  very 
resistant  against  the  customary 
methods  of  preparing  meats, 
and  cannot  be  completely  de- 
stroyed by  ordinary  boiling; 
they  lose  their  poisonous  effects 

after  heating  for  One  and  One-  Colony    of    the    Proteus    vulgaris    with    swarming 

i      11?  i  ,    -i  nno  r<  A         processes.     Gelatin   plate.    X    70  diameters.      (After 

half  hours  at  100    C.,  accord-     Weichseibaum.) 
ing  to  Scholl. 

For  proof  of  putrefaction,  the  changes  of  meat  in  relation  to  color, 
consistence,  odor,  taste,  resistance,  should  be  taken  into  consideration, 
but  as  they  may  vary  greatly,  their  detection  must  depend  to  a  large 
extent  on  subjective  perception  by  the  inspector.  Besides,  the  bac- 
terioscopic  and  bacteriologic  examination  shows  very  large  numbers 
of  anaerobic  and  aerobic  bacteria.  The  muscle  fibers  under  the  micro- 
scope appear  cloudy  and  infected  with  bacteria ;  triple  phosphate  crystals 
may  be  present. 

According  to  Marxer,  meat  should  be  considered  as  putrefactive 
if  one  gram  contains  over  a  million  of  organisms  of  any  kind,  or  proteus 
bacteria  in  large  numbers.  W.  Eber  recommends  proving  the  presence 
of  free  ammonia,  which  develops  in  meat  in  all  putrefaction;  and  his 
putrefactive  test  (see  below)  is  based  upon  this  fact.  In  opposition 


326 


POSTMORTEM  CHANGES  OF  MEAT 


to  this,  however,  Glage  claims  that  it  cannot  by  itself  be  decisive  for 
the  demonstration  of  putrefaction,  as  the  presence  of  ammonia  is  not 
an  exclusively  specific  sign  of  putrefaction,  and  its  development  does 
not  occur  sufficiently  early  with  the  formation  of  toxins  in  the  meat. 
Glage  demands  a  bacteriologic  examination  of  meat  which  is  in 
the  act  of  decomposition  by  making  smear-preparations,  cultures,  and 
animal  experiments.  However,  this  requirement,  which  may  be  justi- 
fied from  a  scientific  standpoint,  could  be  carried  out  in  practice  only 
with  the  greatest  difficulty.  In  large  pieces  of  meat, 
FIG.  139  examination  should  extend  particularly  to  the  deeper 

layers  of  muscles,  as  putrefaction  of  the  surface  may 
be  present  without  involving  deeper  parts. 

Eber's  test  for  putrefaction  is  based  on  the  fact  that 
when  ammonia  and  hydrochloric  acid  vapors  combine, 
gray  to  white  sal  ammoniac  clouds  form.  For  this  test 
the' folio  wing  reagents  are  used:  Acid  hydrochloric,  pur., 
1;  alcohol,  3;  ether,  1.  Of  this  mixture,  enough  is  poured 
into  a  2  cm.  wide  reagent  glass  (Fig.  139)  to  cover  its 
bottom  to  the  depth  of  1  cm.  The  glass  can  be  closed  by 
a  rubber  stopper,  through  which  a  glass  rod  is  inserted, 
which  almost  reaches  to  the  surface  of  the  fluid.  On  the 
rod  is  placed  a  small  sample  of  the  material  to  be  examined, 
or  from  the  latter  some  of  the  juice  is  taken  up  by  the  glass 
rod.  After  the  reagent  has  been  shaken  in  the  test  tube, 
in  order  to  fill  the  tube  with  the  vapors  of  the  hydro- 
chloric acid,  the  glass  rod  is  set  into  the  tube.  The  reac- 
tion varies  in  accordance  with  the  quantity  of  ammonia, 
which  is  set  free  from  the  sample.  There  is  a  formation  of 
gray,  smoke  gray,  or  white  clouds,  which,  starting  at  the 
sample,  sink  down  to  the  surface  of  the  fluid.  Naturally 
no  free  ammonia  should  be  present  in  the  room  where  the 
examination  is  made:  the  sample  to  be  examined  should 
not  be  colder  than  the  reagent  glass. 

This  test  is  not  applicable  on  pickled  meats  on  account 
of  the  presence  of  trimethylamin. 

Proof  of  the  presence  of  hydrogen  sulphate,  which  can 
be  easily  tested  with  a  paper  moistened  in  a  10  per  cent, 
solution  of  nitrate  of  lead,  cannot  essentially  support  the 
diagnosis  of  putrefaction,  as  H2S  forms  soon,  even  in  fresh 
meat  (Rubner,  Glage). 


Reagent  glass  for  Eber's 
test  for  putrefaction. 


Judgment. — The  judgment  of  putrefactive  meat  which  shows  con- 
siderable perceptible  changes  is  not  difficult,  as  such  would  at  once 
be  considered  highly  spoiled  and  unfit  for  human  food.  In  general,  it 
may  be  considered  injurious  to  health,  but  this  is  not  in  direct  relation 
to  the  intensity  of  the  putrefaction.  The  nature  of  the  causative  agents 
of  putrefaction  enters  into  this  question;  also,  numerous  unknown 
additional  circumstances,  and  besides  the  symbiotic  association  of  the 
bacteria  present.  Therefore,  Eber's  test  alone  cannot  be  sufficient 
for  establishing  the  injurious  properties  of  meat,  but  in  general  it  is 
only  useful  as  a  supporting  diagnostic  method  for  determining  bacterial 
decomposition. 


MICROPHYTIC  CHANGES  OF  MEAT  327 

With  reference  to  this  condition,  and  in  consideration  of  the  signifi- 
cant poisonous  properties  of  putrefactive  toxins  under  various  con- 
ditions (see  Chapter  XI),  precaution  should  be  taken  to  withhold  even 
slightly  putrid  meat  from  the  market;  however,  from  the  standpoint 
of  law  its  injuriousness  to  health  cannot  be  positively  asserted,  which 
has  also  been  considered  as  doubtful  by  van  Ermengem.  Therefore, 
in  making  a  decision  it  should  be  with  consideration  of  the  forensic 
results.  It  is  always  advisable  to  declare  meat  with  superficial  decom- 
position of  inferior  quality,  and  at  the  same  time  the  changed  layers 
of  the  meat  should  be  removed. 

[In  accordance  with  the  regulations  governing  the  meat  inspection 
of  the  United  States,  meats  which  on  reinspection  show  evidence  of 
putrefaction  should  be  considered  unhealthful  and  therefore  unfit  for 
human  food.] 


MIXED   PROCESSES   IN   THE   DECOMPOSITION   OF  MEAT 

Various  kinds  of  fermentative  and  putrefactive  processes  may  natu- 
rally develop  simultaneously  in  the  meat,  and  it  is  not  always  possible 
to  characterize  their  nature  exactly.  Especially  difficult  is  the  demon- 
stration of  the  presence  of  the  exceptionally  dangerous  Bacillus  botulinus 
(page  359)  in  the  meat  either  microscopically  or  bacteriologically. 
The  judging  in  such  cases  has  to  depend  principally  upon  the  objective 
characteristics  of  the  meat,  and .  the  unfavorable  conditions  should 
be  considered  always  as  decisive. 


MICROPHYTIC   CHANGES    OF   MEAT 

Characteristics. — Moulds. — Mould  formation  on  meat  is  usually 
the  result  of  keeping  meat  in  damp,  poorly  ventilated  rooms.  Of  the 
known  mould  fungi,  the  penicillium,  aspergillus,  and  mucor  species 
are  especially  apt  to  establish  themselves  on  meat,  the  surface  of  which 
they  cover  with  their  white,  gray,  or  grayish-green  tufts,  which  may 
also  proliferate  into  the  slits,  gaps,  vessels,  and  cuts  of  the  meat  (Figs. 
140,  141,  and  142). 

For  the  chemical  changes  in  mouldy  meat,  see  results  of  Butjagin's  investiga- 
tions which  contain  the  desired  information. 

Phosphorescence. — The  phosphorescence  of  meat  in  the  dark  is  the 
result  of  an  infection  of  its  surface  with  phosphorescent  bacteria. 
The  organism  which  comes  principally  into  consideration  in  this  con- 
nection is  Bacillus  (photobaderium)  phosphorescent,  which,  according 
to  Molisch,  is  the  most  widely  distributed  phosphorescent  bacterium. 

Matzuschita  classifies  the  phosphorescent  bacteria  into  two  groups,  one  of 
which  liquefies  gelatin,  while  the  other  leaves  it  unliquefied.  To  the  first 
belong  four  species  of  the  Bacillus  phosphorescens,  the  Bacillus  luminosus, 


328 


POSTMORTEM  CHANGES  OF  MEAT 


and  the  Bacillus  cyaneophosphorescens;   to  the  second,  six  additional  species 
of  the  Bacillus  phosphor escens. 

According  to  Sacksland  the  phosphorescent  bacteria  are  very  resistant  to 
extreme  degrees  of  cold. 

Red  and  Blue  Colorations  of  Meat. — A  spotted  reddening  of  the 
surface  of  meat  may  be  produced  by  an  infection  with  various  species 
of  the  Bacillus  prodigiosus. 

This  condition  should  not  be  confused  with  the  diffused  reddening  of  boiled 
meat  which  has  already  been  referred  to  on  page  90,  and  which  is  produced 
by  the  action  of  nitrites  and  sulphites. 

Superficial  blue  coloration  of  meat  is  produced  by  the  Bacillus 
cyanogenus. 


FIG.  141 


FIG.  142 


Aspergillus  glaucus:  C.conidia 
chains;  F,  young  eurotiumperi- 
thecium;  M,  mycelium.  X  300 
diameters. 


Penicillium  glaucum: 
C,  conidise;  M,  myce- 
lium. X  300  diam- 
eters. 


Mucor  mucedo:  C,  burst  sporan- 
gium with  conidise;  G,- closed  sporan- 
gium; Z,  germinating  zygospore;  B, 
carrier  of  conidise  with  sporangium  in 
a  schematic  longitudinal  section.  X 
300  diameters. 


Diverse  Changes  of  Meat. — Besides  the  microorganisms  already 
described,  many  other  varieties  thrive  on  meat.  Their  development  is 
greatly  favored  by  the  suitable  nutritive  substance  and  by  inadequate 
storing  of  the  meat. 

At  this  point  there  come  into  consideration  the  aroma  bacteria  (Glage), 
which  belong  to  the  ice  bacteria,  and  which  develop  only  on  meat  kept  in  cool 
places.  They  produce,  besides  ammonia,  a  fruit-like  odor. 

Since  the  causes  of  some  of  the  infectious  diseases  of  man  (typhoid,  cholera, 
scarlet  fever,  and  others)  thrive  on  meat,  it  should  not  be  kept  in  the  vicinity 
of  a  place  where  any  such  contagion  exists. 

Judgment. — In  judging  the  changes  of  meat  described  in  this  section, 
it  should  be  remembered  that  they  are  principally  of  a  superficial 
nature,  and  do  not  otherwise  affect  the  meat  to  a  disadvantage.  If, 


INSECT  LARVAE  ON  MEAT  329 

therefore,  no  decomposition  (putrefaction,  stinking  fermentation) 
accompany  these  conditions,  mouldy  or  phosphorescent  meat  or  meat 
showing  colored  spots  is,  as  a  rule,  neither  injurious  to  health  nor 
spoiled;  and  after  removal  of  the  fungoid  vegetation  or  washing  with 
vinegar,  it  should  be  passed  for  food. 

A  declaration  of  inferior  quality  should  be  made  only  if  the  described 
changes  are  well  marked.  In  the  presence  of  moulds  it  should  be 
remembered  that  meat  might  assume  a  mouldy  taste  and  odor,  which 
should  be  determined  by  the  boiling  test. 

A  highly  spoiled  condition,  and  with  it  an  unfitness  for  food,  occurs 
in  the  presence  of  marked  mouldy  taste  and  odor. 

The  red  coloration  of  sardines  is  supposed  to  be  injurious  to  health. 

[Meats  showing  changes  described  above  are  judged  in  the  United 
States  on  the  same  lines  as  in  Germany;  however,  a  declaration  of 
inferior  quality  does  not  enter  into  consideration,  and  in  such  cases 
the  extent  of  the  changes  decides  whether  the  meat  should  be  passed 
for  food  or  be  condemned.] 


INSECT   LARVAE    ON   MEAT 

During  the  summer  season  this  condition  may  easily  occur.  The 
flies  deposit  their  eggs  or  living  larvae  on  the  meat,  and  the  fly  larvae 
(maggots)  develop  rapidly,  sometimes  within  twenty-four  hours. 

Species. — The  following  species  especially  come  into  considera- 
tion: 

Calliphora  wmitoria  (blow  fly,  muck  fly,  bluebottle  fly). — Stubby, 
cheeks  black,  red  hairs,  four  black  back  shield  stripes;  rear  of  body 
steel  blue  (Fig.  143). 

Sarcophaga  carnaria  (meat  fly). — Slender;  gray;  rear  of  body 
checkered;  three  black  back  stripes;  eyes  red.  Prefer  putrid  meat, 
and  deposit  living  larvae  (Fig.  144). 

The  length  of  the  latter  on  the  first  day  is  1  mm.,  and  it  increases  in  size 
about  1  mm.  daily. 

Musca  domestica  (house  fly) . 

Stomoxys  calcitrans  (stinging  fly). — Gray,  resembling  the  house 
fly,  with  horizontal  stinging  proboscis  on  the  head.  Back  shield  with 
three  whitish  stripes.  Lays  eggs  only  exceptionally  on  decomposed 
meat — otherwise  prefers  horse  manure  (Fig.  145). 

Besides  these  flies  there  is  the  Aglossa  pinguinalis  (fat  cockroach),  which 
lays  its  eggs  on  bacon,  and  later  these  eggs  develop  into  the  16-footed  glittering 
brown  caterpillar.  This  cockroach  is  reddish  brown,  has  glittering  wings, 
the  front  ones  of  which  are  covered  with  spots  resembling  cross-bands,  while 
the  hind  wings  have  long  fringes. 

By  keeping  ham  in  bran  or  flour,  it  may  become  infested  with  the  Tyro- 
glyphus  farince  (flour  mite) . 


330 


POSTMORTEM  CHANGES  OF  MEAT 


Judgment. — As  the  larvae  of  flies  may  occur  on  the  surface  of  per- 
fectly fresh  meat,  their  presence  is  not  sufficient  to  claim  that  it  is 


FIG.  143 


Calliphora  vomitoria.      X  2  diameters. 

spoiled  or  of  inferior  quality.     This,  however,  could  be  asserted  and 
even  total  condemnation  made  if  the  maggots  enter  the  meat.    Besides, 


FIG.  144 


FIG.  145 


Stomoxys  lalcitrans.     X  3  diameters. 


Sarcophaga  carnaria.      X  2  diameters. 


the  consistence  of  the  meat  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
this  decision. 

[Judgment  in  the  United  States  is  the  same  as  in  Germany.] 


OTHER   CHANGES 

Soiling. — In  the  soiling  of  meat  during  slaughter  with  urine,  bile, 
intestinal  contents,  pus,  or  ichor,  it  frequently  happens  that  simple 
washing  of  the  meat  is  not  sufficient  for  their  removal,  and  in  such 
cases,  especially  in  soiling  with  pus  and  ichor,  the  superficial  layers  of 
the  meat  should  be  removed. 

For  contamination  of  meat  with  anthrax  bacilli,  see  page  285,  and  for  con- 
tamination with  pus-producing  organisms,  page  303.  Decker's  investigations 
show  the  possibility  of  the  transmission  of  tubercle  bacilli  to  the  meat  by 
contaminated  tools  of  butchers. 


SOURING  AND  RANCIDITY  OF  FATS  331 

Absorptions  of  Odors. — Absorption  of  odors  may  occur  through 
unsuitable  storage  of  meat.  Odors  from  the  following  substances 
are  especially  readily  absorbed  and  retained:  Carbolic  acid,  chlorine, 
turpentine,  tar  vapors,  tobacco,  and  carrion.  The  corresponding  odor 
and  taste  appear,  as  a  rule,  only  after  the  meat  is  prepared;  therefore, 
a  boiling  test  should  be  made  in  all  suspected  cases. 

Sulphurous  acid,  according  to  Kickton,  may  occur  in  meat  if  it  is  kept  in 
sulphurated  rooms. 

Carbolic  acid  can  be  demonstrated  in  meat  by  bromide  water,  which  forms 
with  a  watery  carbolic  solution  a  yellowish-white  precipitation  of  tribromide 
of  phenol  (Glage). 

Metallic  Poisons. — Metallic  poisons  may  be  transmitted  to  meat 
through  unsuitably  prepared  storage  containers  (tin  boxes,  lead  solder), 
or  by  machines  for  working  up  meat. 

Judgment. — Judgment  in  these  cases  is  in  accordance  with  the  cause. 

Changes  in  Color. — Peculiar  changes  in  color,  the  nature  of  which  is  yet  to 
be  determined,  occasionally  appear  on  boiling  apparently  normal  udders  of 
cows.  The  entire  substance  of  the  udder,  after  boiling  is  completed,  appears 
of  a  bluish,  dark  blackish  blue,  or  an  ink-like  color. 

These  changes  are  observed  only  after  a  certain  time  following  slaughter, 
in  the  working  up  or  during  the  culinary  preparation  of  the  tissue,  and  they 
are  supposed  to  occur  only  in  udders  of  older  cows  during  lactation.  Such 
changes  cannot  be  determined  even  after  thorough  examination  of  the  organ 
in  an  unprepared  condition. 

While  no  injurious  results  to  health,  so  far  as  known,  have  been  observed 
from  their  ingestion,  yet  such  changed  udders  should  be  condemned. 


SOURING    AND   RANCIDITY    OF   FATS 

Fatty  acids  in  large  quantities  develop  in  fats  and  in  meats  rich  in 
fat  when  unsuitably  stored,  and  they  produce  a  souring  of  the  product. 
The  causes  for  this  lie  principally  in  the  influence  of  light  and  oxygen, 
which  split  the  fatty  acids  and  oxy-fatty  acids  from  the  fats,  and 
possibly  also  from  the  action  of  fat-splitting  microorganisms. 

Souring  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  development  of  rancidity, 
but  the  degree  of  souring  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  acidity  of  the 
fat.  The  rancid  odor  and  taste  of  fats  are  in  connection  with  the 
formation  of  aldehydes  and  ketones,  which  originate  from  the  glycerin. 
The  formation  of  alcohol  from  lactose  probably  plays  a  part  in  this 
also. 

Rancid  odor  may  also  be  produced  without  any  marked  changes  in  the  meat 
through  infection  with  the  Bacillus  botulinus.  However,  in  those  cases  souring 
of  meat  is  absent,  as  the  Bacillus  botulinus  grows  only  on  alkaline  soil. 

Souring  and  rancidity  in  meat  containing  fat  are  recognized  by  the 
characteristic  changes  in  odor  and  taste,  both  of  which  may  be  desig- 
nated as  stinking  and  repulsive.  The  degree  of  acidity,  i.  e.,  the  quantity 
of  acid  in  fat,  and  its  rancidity  should  be  established  by  the  chemist. 


332  POSTMORTEM  CHANGES  OF  MEAT 

Judgment. — Rancid  meat  products  should  be  declared  of  inferior 
quality,  as  rancidity  does  not  demand  the  total  condemnation  of  the 
meat.  No  injurious  effect  to  health  from  the  ingestion  of  rancid  meat 
has  as  yet  been  proved,  and  this  also  applies  to  free  fatty  acids. 

If  Bacillus  botulinus  is  the  cause  of  the  rancid  changes,  then  the 
meat  is  always  injurious  to  health  (page  357). 

[There  is  no  standard  adopted  in  the  United  States  by  which  the 
rancidity  of  meat  and  fat  is  judged.  The  condition,  taste,  and  odor 
are  the  guides  by  which  the  disposal  is  made. 

Fats  are  looked  upon  with  suspicion  if  they  contain  over  1J  per 
cent,  of  acidity,  and  when  in  such  cases  there  is  also  a  marked  rancid 
taste  and  odor,  they  are  considered  as  unfit  for  food.] 


CHAPTER    X 

EXAMINATION  AND  JUDGMENT  OF  PREPARED  AND 

PRESERVED  MEATS,  CHICKENS,  GAME,  FISH, 

AMPHIBIA,  AND  CRUSTACEANS 

PRESERVED    AND    PREPARED    MEAT 

THE  properties  of  the  preserved  meat  to  be  discussed  in  this  section, 
as  well  as  the  manner  of  obtaining  it,  have  been  amply  discussed  in 
Chapters  I  and  III.  For  examination  and  judgment  of  such  meat 
in  general,  all  the  principles  apply  which  have  already  been  described  in 
the  previous  chapters.  Therefore,  only  those  essential  characteristics 
will  be  mentioned  in  the  following  discussion,  which  are  of  special  signifi- 
cance for  the  kind  of  meat  belonging  here. 

Ground  Meat,  Sausages,  and  Meats  Prepared  by  Culinary  Methods. 
—The  composition  and  ingredients  of  ground  meat  and  sausage,  also 
of  culinary  prepared  meat  preparations  when  they  consist  of  small 
pieces,  are  difficult  to  determine. 

The  addition  of  starch  flour  may  be  quite  easily  established  by 
treatment  with  tincture  of  iodine  or  Lugol's  solution.  It  is  best  to 
boil  a  small  piece  of  the  sausage,  etc.,  in  water,  and  then  to  the  cooled 
decoction  add  Lugol's  solution.  Smearing  the  cut  surface  of  sausage 
with  iodine  solution  also  discloses  the  blue  coloration  developing  from 
the  presence  of  starch  flour;  but  in  these  cases  the  occurrence  of  single 
blue  dots  (starch  from  spices)  should  not  be  considered  as  intentional 
addition  of  starch.  As  is  well  known,  the  starch  granules  can  also  be 
easily  recognized  microscopically.  The  quantitative  determination  of 
the  addition  of  starch  should  be  entrusted  to  professional  chemists. 

Testing  for  mixtures  of  egg  albumen  and  gum  tragacanth  ("albu- 
mina")  (page  88)  should  also  be  left  for  the  chemist. 

For  the  tests  for  horse  meat,  see  pages  77  and  81. 

Trichina  and  measles  are  the  principal  parasites  which  should  be 
given  consideration.  While  microscopic  examination  of  what  are 
presumably  pieces  of  pork  might  disclose  the  presence  of  trichina, 
such  an  examination  will  always  remain  incomplete  for  easily  under- 
stood reasons,  taking  into  consideration  the  comminuted  masses  of 
meat.  This  also  should  be  considered  in  delivering  an  opinion.  The 
examination  for  measles  is  very  circumstantial  and  uncertain. 

In  the  matter  of  coloring  materials,  a  striking  red  color  of  the  ground 
(chopped)  meat  indicates  mixture  with  sulphurous  acid  salts.  When 
a  superficial  red  coloration  of  boiled  or  roasted  meat  is  present,  the 


334     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

nitrate  action  on  the  muscle-coloring  matter  mentioned  on  page  90, 
should  be  remembered. 

Coloring  of  sausages  with  artificial  materials  (page  88)  is  suspected 
when  the  fat  pieces  present  show  a  red  coloration  on  their  peripheries. 

Demonstration  of  Artificial  Coloring. — For  the  demonstration  of  artificial 
coloring  matter,  the  following  method  will  be  found  satisfactory: 

Two  lots  of  ground  meat,  each  containing  20  grams,  are  heated  for 
one-half  hour  in  a  water  bath,  with  occasional  shaking — the  first 

(a)  With  40  c.c.  of  a  slightly  acidified  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
glycerin  and  water — the  second 

(6)  With  40  c.c.  of  a  4  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  sodium  salicylate; 
then  it  is  pressed  and  filtered.  If  one  or  both  filtrates  show  a  red  color 
it  is  evident  that  artificial  colorings  are  present.  The  presence  of 
carmine  in  the  filtrate  (a)  is  indicated  by  the  appearance  of  a  red 
stained  deposit  on  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  a  few  hours  after  an  over- 
saturation  with  an  ammoniac  solution  and  addition  of  alum  solution 
after  a  few  hours.  For  the  demonstration  of  coal-tar  dyes  a  thread 
of  raw  cotton  is  boiled  with  a  part  of  the  stained  extract  and  with 
10  c.c.  of  a  10  per  cent,  potassium  sulphate  solution  for  a  considerable 
time.  In  the  presence  of  coal-tar  coloring  the  thread  turns  red  and 
retains  that  color,  even  after  washing  in  water. 

Examination  for  Spoiling  and  Decomposition. — Examinations  for 
spoiled  conditions  and  decompositions  should  be  made  according  to  the 
instruction  given  on  page  325.  Spoiled  sausages  usually  have  a  smeary 
appearance,  and  show  a  cyst  formation  under  the  covering,  which  is 
brittle  and  separates  readily  from  the  sausage  filling.  Blood  sausage, 
after  it  is  spoiled,  shows  on  its  cut  surface  a  pale  red  color;  the  odor 
is  sour,  and  the  fat  areas  appear  yellowish  green.  The  cut  surfac  of 
liver  sausage  reddens  after  being  spoiled,  and  very  soon  emits  a  sour 
odor.  Jelly  sausages  turn  soft,  friable,  smeary,  sour,  and  stinking. 
Meat  sausages  appear,  according  to  their  water  contents,  of  a  uniform 
gray,  grayish-green,  or  reddish-yellow  color,  with  a  discoloration  of 
the  fat. 

All  sausages  which  are  rich  in  carbohydrates  putrefy  under  certain 
conditions  very  rapidly  and  strongly.  Furthermore,  all  other  mani- 
festations of  putrefaction,  taste,  mould  formation,  etc.,  should  be 
considered. 

Shilling  undertook  investigations  in  regard  to  the  contents  of  dirt  in  sausage 
coverings  by  examining  fresh  intestines  which  had  been  cleaned  in  the  usual 
way.  He  found  that  each  meter  of  hogs'  small  intestines  weighing  2.16  grams 
contained  0.330  gram  dry  substance;  hogs'  large  intestines  weighing  4.98  grams 
contained  0.530  gram  dry  substance;  cattle  small  intestines  weighing  2.47  grams 
contained  0.275  gram  dry  substance;  cattle  large  intestines  weighing  5  grams 
contained  0.666  gram  dry  substance. 

The  considerable  amount  of  dirt  in  the  large  intestines  is  caused  by  the 
number  of  deep  folds. 

Meat  sausages,  the  filling  in  which  has  a  gray  border,  or  which  has 
entirely  turned  gray  (page  88),  should  not  be  considered  as  spoiled 


PRESERVED  AND  PREPARED  MEAT  335 

without  further  thought,  but  they  should  be  examined  for  characteristic 
signs  of  fermentation  and  putrefaction. 

Rancidity  (page  331)  should  be  determined  by  the  sharp,  harsh,  and 
consequently  disagreeable  taste.  The  exact  test  for  rancidity  should 
be  made  by  a  chemist,  who  should  also  establish  the  degree  of  acidity. 

Judgment. — The  judging  of  deviations  mentioned  here  is  made  accord- 
ing to  previously  developed  principles  with  regard  to  the  spoiled  con- 
dition and  the  presence  of  parasites. 

In  regard  to  the  admissibility  of  starch  flour  in  making  sausages, 
and  the  addition  of  so-called  albumina,  see  pages  87  and  88. 

Von  Raumer  demands  punishment  for  adulteration  when  binding  substances 
are  used.  Sausage  prepared  with  1  per  cent,  of  binding  substance  contained 
53.075  per  cent,  water;  with  4  per  cent,  of  binding  substance,  it  contained 
58.08  per  cent,  of  water,  compared  with  43.33  per  cent,  of  water  in  sausage 
without  binding  substances. 

The  coloring  of  sausage  filling,  but  not  of  casings,  is  prohibited 
throughout  the  German  Empire.  This  applies  also  to  the  use  of  sul- 
phurous salts  and  borates.  If  colored  meat  products,  etc.,  containing 
these  substances  are  offered  for  sale  they  should  be  confiscated.  • 

[In  accordance  with  the  regulations  governing  meat  inspection  in 
the  United  States  only  such  coloring  matters  as  are  designated  by  the 
Secretary  of  Agriculture  as  harmless  may  be  used,  and  these  only  in  such 
a  manner  as  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  may  designate. 

The  use  of  chemical  preservatives  with  the  exception  of  salt  and 
saltpeter,  as  well  as  the  addition  of  potato  flour  in  sausage  filling, 
is  prohibited,  while  cereals  and  water  may  be  only  used  in  moderate 
quantities.] 

In  regard  to  the  consistence  of  sausage  filling,  the  methods  char- 
acteristic to  the  various  localities  and  described  on  pages  86  to  89, 
are  decisive.  The  working  up  into  sausages  of  testicles,  uteri,  fetuses, 
and  cattle  skins  is  to  be  judged  as  an  adulteration. 

Meat  Preserved  by  Physical  Methods. — In  canned  meats  (page 
93)  examination  should  at  first  determine  whether  they  are  spoiled. 
Spoiling  may  be  regarded  as  established  when  the  contents  of  the 
container  can  be  shaken.  Bulging  of  the  otherwise  concave  bottoms 
of  the  cans  also  indicates  accumulation  of  gases  within  the  can,  as  a 
result  of  putrefaction.  If  gases  have  been  present,  but  have  been 
removed,  double  soldering  places  will  be  found  on  the  bottom  of  the 
can,  and  also  a  movableness  of  the  contents. 

If  a  can  with  shakable  contents  has  been  exposed  to  heat,  it  should  be 
allowed  to  cool,  as  the  jelly  in  the  cans  liquefies  at  26°  C. 

According  to  Pfuhl  and  Wintzen,  the  cause  of  bulging  in  canned  meats  may 
be  also  due  to  an  insufficient  soldering  of  the  containers.  The  formation  of 
hydrogen  and  the  separation  of  ferrous  phosphate  are  in  direct  relation  to 
each  other,  and  are  traceable  to  the  action  of  the  organic  acid  contained  in  the 
bouillon  on  the  iron  of  the  walls  of  the  container,  and  to  the  following  secondary 
processes: 


336     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

As  soon  as  decomposition  sets  in  it  is  found  on  opening  the  can  that 
the  jelly  is  liquefied,  of  a  disagreeable  odor,  and  that  corresponding 
changes  have  occurred  in  the  pieces  of  meat.  But  even  without  decom- 
position, the  liquefying  of  canned  jelly  is  a  suspicious  sign  and  makes 
a  more  careful  examination  necessary  (bacteriologic,  boiling  test,  etc.). 
It  should  also  be  examined  for  adulterations,  prohibited  additions  of 
chemicals,  and  a  content  of  inferior  quality  in  the  cans  (gelatinous 
admixtures). 

When  the  presence  of  lead  salts  is  suspected  in  canned  material  as  a  result 
of  a  considerable  content  of  lead  in  the  pewter  used  for  soldering,  chemical 
examination  is  required. 

The  examination  of  frozen  meat,  to  be  done  accurately,  should  be 
undertaken  only  after  thawing  it  out  in  the  usual  way  (page  158). 
Such  meat  appears  softer  and  more  moist;  also  the  red  blood  corpuscles 
on  microscopic  examination  can  be  distinguished  from  those  of  meat 
not  frozen,  since  they  are  discolored,  deformed  and  swim  in  a  greenish 
serum. 

This  serum  contains  the  hemoglobin  in  the  form  of  irregular  yellowish- 
brown  crystals. 

Judgment. — The  judging  of  frozen  meat,  and  also  of  canned  meat, 
is  carried  out  in  accordance  with  the  general  principles.  In  spoiled 
canned  meats  there  is  always  a  suspicion  of  harmfulness  to  health, 
and  for  this  reason  they  should  be  declared  as  unfit  for  consumption 
(see  Meat  Poisonings,  Chapter  XI).  Adulterations,  to  which  also 
should  be  added  the  gelatin  containing  admixtures,  render  the  canned 
products  of  inferior  quality. 

[In  accordance  with  B.  A.  I.  Regulations  the  contents  of  defective 
or  leaking  cans  should  be  condemned  unless  the  repairing  or  repacking 
is  done  within  six  hours  of  the  time  of  original  sterilization.  If  the  con- 
tents show  a  spoiled  condition  they  should  always  be  condemned.] 

Meat  Preserved  with  Chemical  Substances. — Pickled  Meat. — In 
regard  to  the  occurrence  of  decomposition  in  pickled  meat,  attention 
should  be  directed  to  the  consistence  and  the  surface  of  the  meat, 
especially  near  the  bones,  as  well  as  to  the  condition  of  the  brine. 
Nothing  further  need  be  said  here  in  reference  to  the  examination 
for  measles,  trichina,  and  other  diseased  changes. 

The  iridescence  of  cooked,  pickled,  or  smoked  meat  on  the  cut  sur- 
faces is  the  result  of  deficiency  in  muscular  coloring  matter  (Legge), 
and  is  otherwise  unimportant. 

Test  for  Salt. — For  testing  of  common  salt  in  the  deeper  portions  of 
the  meat,  dotting  the  cut  surface  with  10  per  cent,  solution  of  nitrate 
of  silver  serves  satisfactorily  and  causes  a  thick  white  precipitation 
to  form.  A  better  test  for  determination  of  thorough  pickling  is  Glage's 
method,  which  is  described  as  follows: 

(a)  Preparing  the  reagent;  100  c.c.  of  a  2  per  cent,  nitrate  of  silver 
solution  is  shaken  with  23  c.c.  of  normal  ammonium  hydrate.  Then 


PRESERVED  AND  PREPARED  MEAT  337 

more  of  the  latter  reagent  is  added,  drop  by  drop,  until  the  precipitate 
which  develops  has  disappeared  and  the  solution  is  as  clear  as  water. 
An  excess  of  40  c.c.  of  normal  ammonium  hydrate  is  then  added  and 
the  solution  is  diluted  to  200  c.c.  by  the  addition  of  distilled  water. 
This  solution  should  be  kept  in  yellow  bottles,  each  containing  20  c.c. 

(6)  Method  of  performing  the  test:  From  the  centre  of  the  meat 
a  piece  the  size  of  a  hazelnut  is  taken  and  placed  in  a  test-tube  with 
20  c.c.  of  the  solution  and  thoroughly  shaken  several  times.  If  a 
white  precipitate  develops,  which  in  daylight  rapidly  turns  black,  it 
is  an  indication  that  the  meat  is  salted  through;  otherwise  it  is  fresh. 

Test  for  Saltpeter. — For  determining  the  presence  of  saltpeter  in 
pickled  meat  the  brucin  reaction  is  the  best.  According  to  Simon, 
the  presence  of  saltpeter  can  be  determined  in  a  dilution  of  1  to  100,000 
by  this  method. 

Several  small  cut  pieces  of  meat  are  soaked  out  in  the  reagent  glass,  with 
a  few  cubic  centimeters  of  water.  One  or  two  drops  of  this  solution  are  placed, 
by  means  of  a  glass  rod,  into  a  white  porcelain  dish,  to  which  2  drops  of  a  brucin 
solution  is  added  (brucin  is  shaken  with  aqua  destillata,  so  that  only  a  small 
quantity  of  brucin  remains  undissolved) .  To  this  are  added  5  to  10  drops  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  which  must  be  free  from  nitric  acid.  The  solu- 
tions are  then  allowed  to  flow  together.  A  pink  coloration  will  develop  in  the 
test  solution,  the  intensity  of  which  depends  on  the  quantity  of  saltpeter  present. 

Test  for  Boracic  Acid. — If  the  presence  of  boracic  acid  is  suspected, 
the  following  test  will  prove  satisfactory  for  the  demonstration  of  the 
acid  and  its  salts: 

Thirty  grams  of  ground  meat  are  well  mixed  with  5  c.c.  of  a  saturated 
sodium  carbonate  solution,  dried  and  ashed  in  a  platinum  dish.  The 
ash  thus  obtained  is  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid, 
and  with  the  latter  a  strip  of  carcuma  paper  is  moistened,  which  is 
then  dried  on  a  watch-glass  at  100°  C.  If  in  this  process  the  carcuma 
paper  shows  a  red  coloration  on  the  moistened  part,  which  changes 
into  a  blue  by  an  addition  of  a  drop  of  a  sodium  carbonate  solution, 
the  presence  of  boracic  acid  is  proved.1  The  remaining  portion  of  the 
ash  solution  is  made  alkaline  and  evaporated.  The  residue  is  then 
slightly  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid,  the  solution  is  placed  in  a 
Woulfe's  flask,  mixed  with  methyl  alcohol,  and  hydrogen  passed  through 
the  solution.  The  hydrogen,  when  ignited,  in  the  presence  of  boracic 
acid,  burns  with  a  green-bordered  flame. 

Test  for  Sulphuric  Acid. — If  the  meat  is  treated  with  the  salts 
of  sulphuric  acid,  sulphurous  acid,  or  their  salts,  their  presence  may 
be  best  determined  by  Kaemerer's  method,  which  is  best  adapted 
according  to  Edelmann,  Meyer,  and  Strauss  for  a  quick  qualitative 
test  of  sulphurous  acid  and  hyposulphites  in  meat.  It  is  as  follows: 

The  sample  to  be  examined  (fine-cut  meat)  is  placed  on  iodide  of  potassium 
starch  paper,  which  is  prepared  with  iodide  of  potassium.  The  meat  is  moistened 

1  If  this  test  is  carefully  executed  with  reliable  carcuma  paper  it  is  decisive,  and  the  test  by  other 
methods  may  be  omitted. 

22 


338      EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (1  to  8),  and  in  the  presence  of  dinatrium  sulphite 
or  sulphurous  acid  a  deep  brown  ring  develops  around  the  meat  sample,  as 
a  result  of  the  formation  of  iodide  of  starch. 

Test  for  Salicylic  Acid. — While  salicylic  acid  is  not  employed  in  the 
preservation  of  canned  meat,  it  is  used  occasionally,  however,  for  the 
preservation  of  fresh  meat.  The  test  is  made  as  follows: 

Fifty  grams  of  ground  meat  are  macerated  in  200  c.c.  of  a  1  per 
cent,  sodium  carbonate  solution;  then  it  is  heated  to  boiling  point, 
acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  after  adding  5  grams  of  sodium 
chloride  it  is  squeezed  and  filtered.  The  filtrate  is  then  mixed  with 
a  sodium  carbonate  solution  until  a  slight  alkaline  reaction  is  obtained. 
It  is  then  evaporated  to  30  c.c.,  and  if  necessary  it  is  again  filtered. 
The  liquid  is  acidified  with  sulphuric  acid  and  mixed  with  an  iron 
chloride  solution.  A  violet  coloration  indicates  the  presence  of  salicylic 
acid. 

Test  for  Formaldehyde. — Although  formaldehyde  is  not  adapted  for 
the  preservation  of  meat  on  account  of  its  disagreeable  odor  and  taste, 
the  method  for  its  determination  should  be  indicated. 

Thirty  grams  of  ground  meat  are  placed  in  a  flask  with  a  capacity 
of  about  500  c.c.,  to  which  is  added  a  mixture  of  200  c.c.  of  water  and 
10  c.c.  of  an  aqueous  25  per  cent,  solution  of  phosphoric  acid.  After 
one-half  hour's  standing  40  c.c.  of  this  quantity  is  distilled  and  10  c.c. 
of  the  distillate  is  mixed  with  1  c.c.  of  a  fuchsin  solution,  which  has 
been  discolorized  by  sulphuric  acid.  The  presence  of  formaldehyde 
causes  a  red  coloration.  If  the  latter  does  not  appear  it  does  not  necessi- 
tate a  further  examination.  In  case  of  a  positive  reaction  of  the  test 
described  above,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  distillate  is  mixed  with 
an  excess  of  ammonium  hydrate  solution,  and  is  then  evaporated. 
In  the  presence  of  formaldehyde  characteristic  crystals  of  hexamethyl- 
tetramin  will  remain.  These  are  dissolved  in  a  few  drops  of  water. 
One  drop  of  the  solution  is  placed  on  each  of  two  object  glasses  and 
tested  with  both  of  the  following  reagents : 

1.  With  mercuric  chloride  in  excess,  a  crystalline  precipitate  develops 
immediately;  soon  stars  may  be  observed  of  three  or  more  rays  and  later 
octahedra.     The  latter  develop  in  large  quantities  in  a  concentration 
of  1  to  10,000,  but  also  very  distinctly  in  1  to  100,000. 

2.  With  mercuric  potassium  iodide  and  a  small  quantity  of  diluted 
hydrochloric  acid,  hexagonal,  pale  yellow  stars  develop;  they  appear 
very  distinct  even  in  a  concentration  of  1  to  10,000. 

The  presence  of  formaldehyde  can  only  be  established  as  proved 
when  the  obtained  crystalline  residue  shows  the  two  reactions  described 
above. 

Tyrpsin  deposits  may  form  on  barreled  livers,  which  are  preserved  in  brine 
(Groning).  The  surface  of  such  livers,  and  the  intima  of  the  vessels  of  the 
liver,  are  covered  with  small  roundish,  millet-sized  granules,  which  show  a 
yellowish  centre,  surrounded  by  a  narrow,  whitish-gray  zone.  On  section,  such 
a  liver  appears  mottled  and  sprinkled  with  white  dots.  Microscopically,  under 
large  magnification  and  after  clearing  with  glycerin,  fine,  light  needles  lying 


PRESERVED  AND  PREPARED  MEAT  339 

clfe^vY/  together  in  bundles  may  be  seen  radiating  from  the  opaque,  yellowish 
granules  toward  the  periphery.  A  yellowish-green  solution  of  the  granules  in 
nitric  acid  turns  red  on  heating. 

Smoked  Products. — In  the  examination  of  smoked  products  for 
spoiled  conditions  the  parts  lying  around  the  bones  should  be  especially 
observed,  as  well  as  the  larger  connective-tissue  tracts  and  the  con- 
sistence of  the  skin,  if  such  is  present.  Since  meat  is  more  apt  to 
decompose  along  the  bones,  it  is  a  custom  to  introduce  thin  wooden 
sticks  into  hams  in  order  to  be  convinced  by  the  odor  test  of  the  good 
or  spoiled  condition  of  the  respective  meat  layers. 

[In  the  United  States,  the  so-called  "tester" — a  sharp-pointed  steel 
rod  with  a  handle,  is  introduced  toward  the  ham  bone.] 

As  a  result  of  gas  formation  within  the  ham  during  pickling,  small 
vacuoles  may  develop  in  the  muscles  (caro  porosa). 

In  regard  to  the  iridescence  of  smoked  meat  on  the  cut  surface  (salmon 
ham),  see  page  336. 

Judgment. — No  special  features  are  offered  in  the  judgment  of 
meat  products  belonging  to  this  section.  As  the  use  of  boracic  acid, 
sulphurous  acid  salts,  and  formaldehyde  is  prohibited  in  the  German 
Empire,  all  meat  found  on  the  market  to  be  treated  with  these  sub- 
stances should  be  confiscated  as  unfit  for  consumption.  For  police  or 
penal  prosecutions  of  such  offenders,  the  preliminary  tests  mentioned 
should  be  supplemented  by  exact  chemical  examinations. 

The  iridescence  and  vacuole  formations  in  meat  are  of  no  importance 
when  other  processes  of  decomposition  can  be  excluded. 

[The  use  of  the  above-mentioned  preservatives  is  prohibited  in  the 
United  States.] 

Various  Conserve  Preparations. — Meat  Extract  (pages  57  and  105). — Decom- 
position and  mould  formation,  which  are  easily  recognizable,  spoil  meat  extract 
and  render  it  unfit  for  food. 

Wilhelmy  made  investigations  regarding  the  bacterial  flora  of  meat  extracts. 
The  number  of  organisms,  which  principally  occur  as  spores,  is  not  very  large. 

Adulterations  are  only  recognizable  by  a  careful  chemical  examination. 

The  presence  of  horse  meat  may  be  suspected  when  the  extract  is  of  a  thick, 
slimy  consistence,  has  a  fatty  taste,  and  does  not  dissolve  clearly  in  water.  Broth 
made  from  such  extract  forms  films  on  the  surface  like  cream  on  milk,  which 
repeatedly  reappear  after  removal. 

Lard  and  Cooking  Tallow. — The  principal  adulterations  are  mentioned  on  page 
106.  Their  detection,  as  well  as  the  determination  of  the  degree  of  acidity 
and  rancidity  (page  331),  is  only  possible  by  technical  examination. 

For  control  of  the  fat  trade,  the  Zeiss-Wollny  refractometer  is  best  adapted 
for  ascertaining  suspicious  kinds  and  grades.  This  is  also  used  for  the  examina- 
tion of  fat  imported  from  foreign  countries. 

For  examination  of  fats  which  are  not  fluid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  the 
apparatus  must  be  brought  to  a  corresponding  high  temperature  and  maintained 
there.  This  is  accomplished  through  a  warm- water  heating  arrangement.  The 
filtered  liquid  fat  is  placed  at  the  one-half  of  the  prism  case  B,  and  the  prism 
from  B  is  pressed  against  that  of  A.  Then,  through  the  ocular  the  micrometer 
scale  is  observed  on  the  inside  of  the  tube,  and  the  refraction  thus  observed 
is  compared  with  the  temperature  as  well  as  with  the  permissible  value  limits 
on  a  scaled  table.  Recently  the  apparatus  has  been  improved  by  Wollny 


340     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED   MEATS 


by  a  so-called  indicator  thermometer,  the  scale  of  which  does  not  contaiiinjhe 
temperature  degrees,  but  it  indicates  the  permitted  value  limits  for  butter  and 

lard,  so  that  by  comparing  the  micrometer 
FIG.  146  value  and  the  thermometer  degrees  it  is  at 

once  disclosed  whether  the  sample  is  suspi- 
cious. 

If  the  examination  with  the  refractometer  in- 
dicates a  conspicuous  high  negative  ( — )  value, 
or  a  higher  positive  value  (-}-)  of  more  than 
1.3  (+  1.3)  the  fat  should  then  be  examined 
for  an  adulteration. 

In  various  tallows — beef,  mutton,  and  goat 
tallow — which  appear  on  the  market  in  a  raw 
or  rendered  state  only  the  preserved  condition 
comes  under  consideration. 

Tallow  with  an  abnormal  odor,  and  that 
which  is  changed  in  color,  should  be  utilized 
only  for  technical  purposes. 


Refractometer  by  Zeiss-Wollny  in 
Jena:  A,  fixed  half  of  the  prism  case; 
B,  movable  half;  C,  joint;  D,  nozzle 
for  the  attachment  of  a  rubber  tube  for 
conducting  warm  water;  E,  nozzle  for 
the  attachment  of  a  rubber  tube  for 
drawing  off  the  warm  water;  F,  closing 
pin  for  the  prism  case;  G,  opening  for 
adjustment  of  the  scale;  H,  supporter 
for  B;  J,  mirror. 


Examination  of  Fats. — In  the  examina- 
tion of  fats  the  following  principles  should 
be  observed: 

1.  In  the  presence  of  moulds,  fungi,  or 
colonies  of  bacteria,  it  should  be  deter- 
mined whether  these  represent:  (a)  an 
insignificant  localized  pollution  from  the 
outside,  for  instance,  as  a  result  of  slight 

defects  in  the  packing;  (6)  a  significant  outside  covering  of  the  fat; 

or  (c)  proliferations  in  the  inside  of  the  fat. 

2.  In  the  judgment  of  the  color,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  whether 
the  fat  manifests  a  color  which  is  not  characteristic  for  that  particular 
kind  of  fat,  or  whether  it  shows  any  perceptible  foreign  ingredient. 

3.  In  the  test  for  odor  it  should  be  examined  for  a  rancid,  tallowish, 
oily,  sour,  musty,  mouldy,  as  well  as  for  a  putrid  repulsive  odor. 

4.  In  testing  for  the  taste,  it  should  be  established  whether  there 
is  a  bitter  or  a  repulsive  taste.     Care  should  also  be  taken  to  detect 
foreign  ingredients  by  the  taste. 

5.  If  a  musty  odor  or  taste  is  established  the  fat  should  be  examined 
to  learn  if  this  originates  from  insignificant  outside  pollution  of  the 
fat  or  of  the  package. 

Of  the  chemical  examinations  of  fats  it  is  deemed  advisable  to  describe 
only  the  tests  for  foreign  colorings  and  for  adulteration  with  cotton- 
seed oil. 

Test  for  Foreign  Coloring  Matter. — The  presence  of  foreign  coloring 
matter  in  fat  is  established  by  dissolving  the  melted  fat  in  about  double 
the  quantity  of  absolute  alcohol.  In  artificially  colored  fats  the  cooled 
alcoholic  solution  shows  a  pronounced  yellow  or  reddish-yellow  colora- 
tion. 

For  the  demonstration  of  certain  coal-tar  dyes,  2  to  3  grams  of  fat 
are  dissolved  in  5  c.c.  of  ether,  and  the  solution  is  thoroughly  shaken 
in  a  test-tube  with  5  c.c.  of  hydrochloric  acid,  which  has  a  specific 


PRESERVED  AND  PREPARED  MEAT  341 

gravity  of  1125.  In  the  presence  of  certain  azo  coloring  matters  the 
layer  of  hydrochloric  acid  which  sinks  to  the  bottom  shows  a  distinct 
red  coloration. 

Test  for  Cottonseed  Oil. — In  a  corked  flask,  which  is  provided  with 
an  upright  tube,  5  c.c.  of  fat  are  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  amyl 
alcohol  and  5  c.c.  of  a  1  per  cent,  solution  of  sulphur  in  carbon  bisulphide, 
and  heated  for  fifteen  minutes  in  a  boiling- water  bath.  If  a  coloration 
does  not  appear,  5  c.c.  more  of  the  sulphur  solution  are  added  and 
it  is  again  heated  for  one-quarter  of  an  hour.  A  distinct  red  coloration 
of  the  solution  is  produced  by  the  presence  of  cottonseed  oil. 

If  this  test  indicates  that  the  fat  is  adulterated  with  vegetable  oils 
a  test  should  be  made  for  phytosterin. 

Test  for  Phytosterin. — The  test  for  the  demonstration  of  phytosterin 
should  be  carried  out  in  the  following  way: 

One  hundred  grams  of  the  fat  are  melted  in  a  water  bath  in  a  flask 
of  about  1  liter  capacity,  provided  with  a  return  condenser,  and  the 
fat  is  then  saponified  over  the  boiling-water  bath  by  adding  200  c.c. 
of  an  alcoholic  potassium  hydroxide  solution,  which  contains  200  grams 
potassium  hydroxide  in  1  liter  of  alcohol  (70  per  cent.).  After  the 
conclusion  of  the  saponification,  which  requires  about  one-half  hour, 
the  saponified  solution  is  mixed  with  600  c.c.  of  water,  and  after  cooling 
it  is  shaken  out  four  times  with  ether  in  a  separating  funnel.  For  the 
first  shaking  800  c.c.  of  ether  is  used,  while  for  the  three  following 
400  c.c.  of  ether  is  used  for  each;  the  solution  is  then  distilled  and  the 
residue  is  again  heated  in  a  water  bath  for  five  to  ten  minutes  with 
10  c.c.  of  the  alcoholic  potassium  hydroxide.  The  solution  is  then 
mixed  with  20  c.c.  of  water,  and  after  cooling  is  shaken  twice,  using 
200  c.c.  of  ether  in  each  shaking.  The  ether  solution  is  washed  four 
times  with  10  c.c.  of  water,  then  is  filtered  through  a  dry  filter  and 
the  ether  is  distilled  off.  The  residue  is  placed  in  a  glass  dish  and  dried 
at  100°  C.  Then  2  to  3  c.c.  of  acetic  acid  anhydride  is  added,  the 
dish  is  covered  with  a  watch-glass,  and  heated  to  boiling  on  a  wire 
net  for  about  one-half  minute.  The  excess  of  acetic  acid  anhydride 
is  then  evaporated  off  on  the  water  bath.  The  residue  is  crystalized 
four  to  five  times  with  1  to  1.5  c.c.  of  absolute  alcohol,  and  after  the 
third  crystalization  the  melting  point  is  determined  for  each  crystaliza- 
tion.  If  the  last  crystalization  product  melts  only  at  117°  C.  (corrected 
melting  point),  or  higher,  the  test  for  vegetable  oil  should  be  considered 
established. 

Caviar. — The  examination  of  caviar  referred  to  on  page  107,  should  be  made 
from  the  point  of  view  of  color,  consistence,  odor,  taste,  neutral  reaction,  size 
of  eggs,  and  foreign  ingredients. 

Adulterations  are  made  with  sago,  oil,  bouillon,  white  beer,  and  sometimes 
are  very  difficult  to  recognize. 

Acid  and  rancid  conditions  in  suspicious  cases  should  be  chemically  deter- 
mined, as  should  also  suspiciously  high,  plain  salt  contents. 

Putrefactive  decompositions  are  evident  in  the  presence  of  ammonia  and 
hydrogen  sulphide. 


342     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

Judgment. — In  all  these  preparations,  all  decompositions  should  be  judged 
in  accordance  with  the  degree;  and  if  such  be  present  in  caviar,  it  is  to  be  con- 
sidered injurious  to  health.  A  marked  acid  and  rancid  state  renders  fat  and 
caviar  spoiled  (inferior  quality),  and  even  unfit  for  food. 

According  to  Niebel,  the  line  between  inferior  quality  and  strongly  rancid 
caviar  appears  to  be  a  4.5  per  cent,  content  of  free  fatty  acid. 

EXAMINATION   AND   JUDGING    OF   FOWLS,    GAME,    FISH, 
AMPHIBIA,    CRUSTACEANS,   AND   MOLLUSKS 

The  meat  included  under  this  section  has  already  been  discussed 
in  Chapters  I  and  II,  with  reference  to  its  origin  and  characteristics. 
As  the  conditions  to  be  observed  in  the  examination  and  judgment 
of  such  meat  correspond  in  general  with  those  which  were  established 
for  food  animals  in  the  narrow  sense  (page  146),  only  a  few  character- 
istics need  be  given  here. 

Fowl. — Domestic  fowl  should  be  examined  in  life,  and  also  when 
slaughtered,  after  plucking.  The  slaughter  wound  should  be  noted 
in  fowls  which  are  brought  to  the  market  after  being  plucked. 

The  skin  should  not  be  discolored  (bluish  or  bluish  gray,  faded  or 
shriveled),  and  should  not  disclose  cadaver  spots. 

Light,  poorly  nourished  geese  are  occasionally  inflated,  according  to 
Ostertag. 

Age. — In  regard  to  the  age,  a  distinction  is  made,  as  a  rule,  only 
between  young  and  old;  that  is,  whether  it  is  under  one  year  old  or 
over.  Niebel  points  out  the  following  signs  of  age : 

The  domestic  pigeon  is  considered  young  until  the  attainment  of  sexual 
maturity;  but  most  unfledged  animals  (five  to  six  weeks)  are  usually  sold  as 
young.  In  very  young  squabs  the  breast  appears  white.  Very  soon  it  changes 
to  a  bluish  red,  until  it  finally  becomes  blue  red.  In  very  young  pigeons  the 
entire  breast  bone  is  flexible;  in  young  ones  only  the  posterior  end,  while  in 
old  pigeons  it  cannot  be  flexed  at  all.  A  young  pigeon  possesses  long,  yellowish 
down,  and  the  tail  feathers  appear  stemmed;  that  is,  the  shaft  of  the  same  on  the 
lower  end  does  not  contain  any  feathers.  An  older,  full-fledged  pigeon  has  red- 
colored  feet  and  no  down.  According  to  Cornevin,  the  bill  for  the  first  six  to 
eight  months  is  soft,  later  becoming  hard. 

In  very  young  domestic  fowl  the  back  portion  of  the  breast  bone  can  be 
easily  bent  outward;  in  young  fowls  it  breaks  easily,  and  in  old  fowls,  only  when 
considerable  force  is  applied.  The  breast  bone  keel  bends  sideways  readily 
in  young  animals;  in  old  ones  it  remains  stable.  The  ischium  and  the  os  pubis 
can  be  pressed  forward  without  breaking  in  young  animals,  while  in  old  ones 
the  latter  occurs  with  a  cracking  sound.  An  old  cock  has  a  spur  over  1  cm.  in 
length,  which  in  the  young  is  correspondingly  smaller.  Occasionally  spurs 
may  be  also  met  with  in  hens.  Older  hens  have  hard  spurs  and  rough  scales 
on  the  legs;  the  lower  half  of  the  bill  cannot  be  bent  at  all  with  the  fingers,  as 
is  the  case  with  young  hens. 

In  young  guinea  fowls  the  feather  flag  of  the  o,utside  quill  feather  is  pointed; 
in  the  old  birds  it  is  more  or  less  rounded. 

In  turkeys  the  age  is  determined  by  the  spur,  and  also  by  the  appearance  of 
the  first  quill  feather  already  described.  This  is  also  decisive  in  turkey  hens, 
in  which  the  rectum  of  old  animals  is  also  surrounded  by  a  red  ring.  In  a 
young  domestic  goose  or  domestic  duck  the  trachea  at  the  entrance  of  the  thorax 
can  be  easily  indented;  in  the  old  it  resists  pressure.  If  a  goose  still  possess 
yellow  down,  it  is  then  at  the  most  but  ten  weeks  old. 


EXAMINATION  AND  JUDGING  OF  FOWLS,  GAME,  FISH,  ETC.     343 

External  Diseases.  —  Of  the  external  diseases  of  fowl  may  be  mentioned 
chickenpox  (epithelioma  contagiosum),  which  preferably  occurs  in  chickens, 
turkeys,  and  pigeons,  on  the  combs,  wattles,  corners  of  the  bill,  and  also  on 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  head  and  neck.  According  to  Marx  and  Sticker, 
it  is  produced  by  an  ultramicroscopic  filterable  virus. 

The  comb  scab  (Tinea  galli,  chicken  favus)  and  the  leg  scab  (Dermatoryctes 
mutans),  which  leads  to  the  development  of  the  so-called  lime  feet  (scaly 
feet),  should  be  considered. 

Internal  Diseases. — The  numerous  animal  parasites  occurring  internally  in 
fowls  are,  as  a  rule,  of  no  importance  for  the  veterinary  inspector,  except  in 
severe  infestations  and  cachectic  conditions,  thereby  effecting  changes  in  the 
meat.  The  connective-tissue  mite  (Symplectoptes  or  Laminosioptes  cysticola), 
however,  deserves  special  mention.  It  frequently  produces  dull  white  or  yellow- 
ish spots  and  nodules  up  to  the  size  of  1  mm.,  often  in  very  large  numbers 
in  the  subcutaneous  and  muscular  connective  tissue  of  chickens.  The  contents 
of  these  formations  are  otherwise  granular,  fatty,  or  chalky.  In  severe  infesta- 
tions with  this  parasite  the  meat  becomes  unfit  for  human  food;  milder  cases 
make  it  a  spoiled  (deficient)  food.  The  air-sac  mite  (Cystodites  nudus)  lives 
in  the  neck,  breast,  and  abdominal  air  sacs  in  chickens  and  pheasants,  where 
they  may  cause  inflammatory  changes  and  necrosis.  In  invasions  of  the  lungs 
and  trachea,  inflammation  and  dyspnea  are  observed.  As  a  result  of  the  presence 
of  numerous  Davainea  mutabilis  in  the  intestines  of  chickens,  cachectic  con- 
ditions may  develop  (Ruther). 

Of  the  specific  infectious  diseases  of  fowl,  the  following  come  under 
consideration : 

CHICKEN  CHOLERA. — Chicken  cholera  is  a  septicemic  affection  which 
occurs  in  all  domestic  fowl,  and  spreads  rapidly  in  an  epizootic  form. 

The  cause  is  the  Bacterium  avicidum,  which  belongs  to  the  group 
of  hemorrhagic  septicemia  bacilli  (page  318). 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  the  living  bird  the  symptoms  are  not 
characteristic:  Fever,  dulness,  difficulty  in  respiration,  feathering 
bristled,  and  livid  coloring  of  the  comb  in  chickens. 

Occasionally  also  there  is  sudden  death  without  showing  pronounced 
signs  of  illness.  The  anatomic  findings  consist  principally  in  a  hemor- 
rhagic enteritis;  hemorrhages  under  the  serous  membranes,  epicardium, 
on  the  heart  and  in  the  lungs;  infarctions  of  the  muscles  which  in 
prolonged  sickness  may  also  degenerate. 

The  recognition  of  chicken  cholera  depends  on  the  demonstration 
of  the  bacteria,  which  may  be  found  in  the  blood  of  larger  veins.  In 
doubtful  cases  Kitt  recommends  the  inoculation  of  blood  into  pigeons 
with  the  aid  of  lance  prickings  of  the  chest  muscles.  In  case  of  chicken 
cholera,  death  occurs  in  twelve  to  forty-eight  hours.  Chickens  slaugh- 
tered in  the  last  stage  of  the  disease,  which  is  indicated  by  the  cadaver 
spots  on  the  inside  of  the  legs  and  on  the  lower  portion  of  the  abdomen, 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  offered  for  sale. 

Judgment. — As  there  is  no  danger  to  human  .health  from  eating 
these  fowl,  the  degree  of  the  disease  and  the  condition  of  the  bird 
decide  whether  it  should  be  considered  as  highly  spoiled  and  accordingly 
condemned,  or  whether  after  previous  boiling  it  should  be  admitted 
for  consumption.  The  latter  precaution  is  necessary,  from  a  veterinary 
police  standpoint,  for  preventing  the  spread  of  bacteria. 


344     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

CHICKEN  PEST. — Chicken  pest  is  an  acute  contagious,  infectious 
disease,  which  almost  exclusively  occurs  in  chickens,  very  rarely  in 
pigeons  and  water  fowl,  and  terminates  fatally  within  two '  to  four 
days.  The  cause  is  an  ultramicroscopic  filterable  virus. 

Symptoms  and  Lesions. — In  the  living  animal  there  are  noted  dul- 
ness,  lethargy,  dark  red  coloration  of  the  comb  and  wattles,  slimy 
discharges  from  the  opening  of  the  mouth,  and  occasionally  profuse 
diarrhea.  The  anatomic  findings  in  quickly  terminating  cases  may 
be  limited  to  several  punctiform  hemorrhages  on  the  pericardium, 
breast  bone,  and  peritoneum.  Otherwise  there  is  a  collection  of  mucus 
in  the  nasal  and  buccal  cavities,  pulmonary  hyperemia,  pericarditis, 
hemorrhages  on  the  mucous  membranes  and  under  the  serous  mem- 
branes, intestinal  catarrh,  fibrinous  exudate  in  the  abdominal  cavity, 
salpingitis,  cloudy  swelling  of  the  liver,  edema  on  chest  and  neck. 

For  the  recognition  of  chicken  pest  it  is  always  advisable  to  inoculate 
a  pigeon  and  a  chicken ;  if  chicken  pest  is  present,  death  occurs  in  from 
twelve  to  forty-eight  hours.  Besides,  the  absence  of  the  causative 
bacillus  of  chicken  cholera  and  absence  of  a  marked  intestinal  inflamma- 
tion are  decisive. 

Judgment. — The  same  principles  should  be  applied  as  in  chicken 
cholera. 

For  chicken  cholera  and  chicken  pest  compulsory  notification  was 
established  by  proclamation  of  the  Imperial  Chancellor  in  1903. 

CHICKEN  DIPHTHERIA. — Chicken  diphtheria  is  an  infectious  disease 
of  chickens  and  pigeons  running  an  acute  or  chronic  course,  and  which 
is  produced  by  the  Bacillus  diphtheria  avium. 

Lesions. — Yellowish-white  membranous  deposits  on  the  tongue, 
palate,  and  buccal  mucous  membrane  appear,  and  in  advanced  affec- 
tions also  croupous-diphtheritic  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes 
of  the  eye,  the  nose,  the  deeper  air  passages,  and  the  intestinal  canal. 
In  the  latter  cases  it  is  generally  accompanied  by  anemia,  cloudy 
swellings  of  the  parenchyma,  and  hemorrhages  on  the  heart. 

Judgment.  —  Although  Piorkowski  has  recently  declared  chicken 
diphtheria  identical  with  human  diphtheria,  still  there  are  no  dele- 
terious effects  observed  on  human  health  from  ingestion  of  the  meat; 
neither  are  there  any  observations  recorded  of  transmission  of  the 
disease  from  chicken  to  man.  [In  fact,  the  general  opinion  prevails 
among  scientists  that  there  is  no  relation  between  diphtheria  of  chickens 
and  that  of  man;  furthermore,  Uhlenhuth  and  Ratz  have  recently 
established  the  identity  of  chicken  diphtheria  with  epithelioma  con- 
tagiosum.]  Whether  the  meat  should  be  considered  spoiled,  depends 
on  its  objective  changes. 

TUBERCULOSIS  OF  FOWL. — This  should  be  judged  for  the  present 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  mammalia  (page  273),  although  there  is 
no  pathogenicity  of  the  bacilli  of  fowl  tuberculosis  for  man  and  for 
certain  other  domestic  animals.  [Recent  investigations,  however, 
have  demonstrated  the  presence  of  the  avian  tubercle  bacillus  in 
human  beings,  hogs,  horses,  and  other  mammals.] 


EXAMINATION  AND  JUDGING  OF  FOWLS,  GAME,  FISH,  ETC.     345 

FOWL  ARTHRITIS. — Finally  there  should  be  mentioned  fowl  arthritis 
with  changes  of  the  joints,  and  calcareous  incrustations  in  the  skin, 
kidneys,  and  serous  membranes.  For  the  test  of  uric  acid  deposits 
the  murexid  reaction  is  applied  as  follows:  The  concrements  are 
mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  nitric  acid,  evaporated  by  drying  to 
an  onion-red  mass,  which,  on  the  addition  of  a  drop  of  ammonia,  gives 
a  beautiful  purple-red  color.  The  meat  of  animals  severely  affected 
with  arthritis  must  be  considered  as  spoiled  food.  Egg  concrements 
in  the  body  cavity,  which  are  occasionally  observed  in  hens,  are  of 
no  importance. 

The  general  judging  of  fowl  meat  does  not  deviate  from  the  general 
principles  described  for  other  flesh. 

Postmortem  Changes  of  Fowl  Meat. — Borchmann  called  attention 
to  the  unfavorable  influence  on  goose  meat  through  long  storing  of  un- 
drawn geese  in  refrigerators  and  cold-storage  houses  (ice  geese,  Russian 
geese).  The  objective  deterioration  of  the  appearance  of  such  geese 
consists  in  a  whitish-yellow  to  a  whitish-green  discoloration  of  the 
skin  ("cadaver  color"),  which  after  thawing  out  becomes  oily,  yellow, 
leather-like,  and  tightly  attached.  Besides,  there  may  be  present 
hypostasis  of  the  skin  of  the  lower  abdomen  and  rump.  The  muscles 
of  cold-storage  geese  are  red-violet  or  deep  dark  red,  and  when  roasted 
appear  dark  brown  to  brownish  black  and  tough.  The  fat  of  a  cold- 
storage  goose  is  oily,  does  not  stiffen,  and  deposits  a  gray,  gritty  sedi- 
ment; its  taste  is  rancid  or  musty.  Due  to  these  characteristics,  cold- 
storage  geese  are,  under  all  conditions,  of  inferior  quality,  and  besides 
they  may  also  be  in  a  highly  spoiled  condition  and  consequently  unfit 
for  consumption. 

Bacon  also  pointed  out  the  dangers  of  long  storing  of  undrawn  fowl 
in  cold-storage  houses. 

Game. — The  meat  of  game  is  characterized  in  general  by  its  high  blood  con- 
tent, which  favors  its  decomposition  when  unsuitably  kept,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  meat  of  game  resists  putrefaction  for  comparatively  a  long 
time. 

Although  game  should,  as  a  rule,  disclose  shot  wounds,  nevertheless  wild 
fowl  can  be  seen  occasionally  which  were  caught  in  traps  or  nets,  and  only 
display  traces  of  strangulation.  The  shot  wounds  which  are  produced  post- 
mortem have  no  bloody  infiltrated  borders. 

Age. — In  reference  to  the  age  which  sometimes  comes  into  considera- 
tion in  haired  game,  principally  in  rabbits,  deer,  fallow  deer,  roe,  and 
boars,  Niebel  established  the  following  fixed  points: 

In  young  rabbits  the  thorax  can  be  easily  pressed  in;  and  in  compressing 
the  posterior  branches  of  the  maxillae,  the  two  middle  incisors  spread  apart 
as  wide  as  the  thickness  of  a  finger.  The  hair  of  a  young  rabbit,  especially  on 
the  abdomen,  is  softer  than  that  of  an  old  animal.  The  aponeuroses  of  the  lum- 
bar region  are,  in  the  young  rabbit,  grayish  white,  thin,  transparent;  in  the  old, 
yellowish  white  and  not  transparent.  The  ribs  of  young  animals  break  easily; 
those  of  the  old  do  not.  The  pelvic  symphysis  is  cartilaginous  in  young  animals ; 
in  old  rabbits  it  is  ossified.  The  meat  of  old  rabbits  is  dark  red,  while  in  young 
rabbits  it  is  pale  and  grayish  red. 


346     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

In  deer  the  question  occasionally  arises  whether  it  is  a  calf  or  a  full-grown 
deer.  According  to  Whering,  an  alleged  deer  which  possesses  less  than  six 
molar  teeth  in  each  row,  and  accordingly  is  less  than  sixteen  to  eighteen  months 
old,  must  be  considered  a  calf.  Whering  indicates  the  changes  of  teeth  in  the 
roe,  common  stag,  and  fallow  deer  in  the  following  exhibit : 


The  centre  incisors  appear  after 
The  inside  laterals  appear  after  . 
The  outside  laterals  appear  after 
The  corners  appear  after 
The  premolars  appear  after  . 


Roe. 

6  to  8    months 
10  to  11  months 

12  months 

13  months 
14  to  15  months 


Common  stag.        Fallow  deer 


10  months 
13  months 
15  months 
22  months 
24  months 


15  months 

17  months 
20  months 

18  months 
30  months 


The  young  of  the  wild  boar  have  at  three  to  four  months,  3  pairs  of  temporary 
incisors,  3  temporary  molars  in  each  row,  and  temporary  tusks.  When  eight 
to  nine  months,  they  have  besides,  one  permanent  molar  in  each  row  and  the 
tusks.  A  shoat  of  twenty  months  has  3  pairs  of  permanent  incisors,  the  wolf 
teeth,  5  permanent  molars  in  each  row,  and  the  temporary  tusks  are  replaced 
by  permanent  ones.  In  boars  and  sows,  two  and  one-half  years  old,  the  last 
permanent  molar  is  also  present. 


FIG.  147 


FIG.  148 


Pelvis  of  a  doe  with  a  front  view  of  the  os  pubis 
and  a  section  through  the  symphysis. 


Pelvis  of  a  buck  with  a  front  view  of  the  os  pubis 
and  a  section  through  the  symphysis. 


For  wild  fowl  Niebel  gives  the  following  signs  of  age: 

An  old  partridge  is  distinguished  from  a  young  one  by  its  more  strongly 
developed  structure,  gray  to  grayish-blue  legs,  which  in  the  young  are  more 
yellow,  and  by  yellowish-brown  feathers  on  the  head,  which  in  the  young  are 
gray.  But  after  four  months  the  young  partridge  also  has  yellowish-brown 
head  feathers,  and  therefore  after  that  age  only  the  outside  quill  feathers  show 
indications  by  which  to  decide,  their  ends  being  pointed  in  young  partridges, 
while  in  the  old  they  are  rounded. 

In  the  mountain  partridge  the  age  is  determined  by  the  extreme  outside 
quill  feather. 

In  the  woodcock,  heathcock,  heathpout,  and  white  grouse  the  extreme  out- 
side quill  decides,  together  with  the  breast  bone  and  spurs. 


EXAMINATION  AND  JUDGING  OF  FOWLS,  GAME,  FISH,  ETC.     347 

The  spur  of  a  young  pheasant  cock  is  short  and  stubby;  that  of  an  old  bird 
is  10  mm.  long  and  7  mm.  wide;  in  a  cock  about  ten  months  old  the  spur  is 
only  6  mm.  long. 

The  breast  bone  is  flexible  in  earliest  youth;  it  can  be  broken  in  young  birds; 
in  old  ones,  however,  it  is  broken  only  with  great  difficulty.  The  feathers 
until  the  second  year  are  of  a  dark  color  tint,  which  remains  permanently  in  the 
hen,  while  in  the  cock  at  two  years  the  variegated  feathering  and  long  tail 
feathers  develop. 

In  wild  geese  and  ducks  the  firmness  of  the  trachea  is  decisive. 

In  young  bustards  the  end  of  the  breast  bone  is  flexible.  In  snipe,  quail, 
and  others  the  age  is  of  no  importance. 

Sex. — The  establishment  of  sex  is  occasionally  of  some  importance  in  the 
eviscerated  deer. 

When  the  sexual  organs  are  removed  and  the  cranial  covering  sawed  off 
the  pelvis  is  decisive,  as  indicated  by  Whering  and  SchafT  in  the  following: 
The  pelvis  of  the  doe  (Fig.  147)  when  viewed  from  above  appears  broader, 
more  spacious,  less  slender  than  the  pelvis  of  the  buck  (Fig.  148);  the  distance 
of  the  outside  angles  of  the  ileum  from  each  other  is  as  50  to  40.  On  the  pubic 
symphysis  the  pelvis  of  the  buck  is  thick  and  like  a  protuberance;  that  of  the 
doe  is  thin,  flat  in  front,  and  slightly  hollowed.  It  is  emphasized  by  Whering 
that  the  appearance  of  the  symphysis  can  only  be  utilized  with  a  degree  of 
certainty  in  older  deer,  as  all  the  young  individuals  have  a  thickened  protuberant 
symphysis;  accordingly,  Malkmus  recommends  cutting  out  the  halves  of  the 
pelvic  bones  and  boiling  them. 

The  common  stag  and  fallow  deer  show  also  similar  sexual  differences  in 
the  pelvis. 

In  regard  to  the  value  of  the  meat  of  both  sexes  in  haired  and  feathered 
game,  the  meat  of  male  animals  is  preferred  in  general  on  account  of  its  stronger 
taste  of  game.  During  estrum,  venison  is  supposed  to  have  a  repulsive  taste 
similar  to  that  of  the  male  goat. 

Diseases. — The  important  diseases  which  occur  in  game  have  already 
been  mentioned  in  Chapter  VIII.  Anthrax,  hemorrhagic  septicemia, 
and  animal  parasites,  measles,  trichina  in  wild  boars,  as  well  as  the 
so-called  rabbit  measles  (Cysticercus  pisiformis)  should  be  especially 
indicated.  For  measles  of  deer  and  reindeer,  see  pages  247  and  248. 
Strongylides  in  the  lungs  and  intestines  of  rabbits  may  produce  severe 
affections  and  may  result  in  numerous  fatalities. 

Postmortem  Changes. — In  the  matter  of  postmortem  changes  (page 
323),  no  concessions  should  be  made  by  the  sanitary  police  to  the  current 
conception  of  "land  flavor."  In  animals  not  eviscerated  the  intestinal 
putrefaction  soon  passes  over  to  the  abdominal  walls,  and  discolors 
them  green  or  bluish  green.  The  appearance  of  the  eyes  is  also  an 
indication  of  the  freshness  of  game;  if  they  are  markedly  sunken,  it 
is  then  quite  certain  the  game  was  shot  several  days  previously. 

Regarding  the  judging  of  meat  of  game  there  is  nothing  to  be  added 
to  what  has  already  been  described  regarding  other  flesh. 

Fish. — The  killing  of  fish  should  be  preceded  by  stunning  with  a 
blow  on  the  head. 

Although  in  the  water  of  moderate  climates  there  occur  no  fish  the 
meat  of  which  in  itself  would  be  poisonous,1  yet  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  roe  of  perch  and  occasionally  also  that  from  pike,  herring, 

1  For  further  particulars  see  Robert  on  Poisonous  Fish  and  Fish  Poisons,  Vortag,  Stuttgart,  1905. 


348     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

carp,  trench,  and  breem  may  contain  during  the  spawning  time,  cholera- 
like  acting  poisons  (barbel  cholera,  signatera). 

The  raw  meat  and  blood  of  the  river  eel  and  sea  eel,  as  well  as  of  the  lamprey, 
contain  a  toxalbumen  (ichthyotoxicon)  which  is  destroyed  by  cooking.  In 
the  lamprey  there  may  also  appear  a  poison  in  the  skin,  which  remains  active 
even  when  the  fish  are  boiled  to  a  soup.  Some  of  the  fish  also  possess  poison 
glands  in  the  mouth  and  skin;  in  the  latter  class  are  included  the  so-called 
" poison  stingers"  (dragon  fish,  sea  scorpion).  For  distinguishing  fresh  fish 
from  stale  and  decomposed  fish,  the  following  fixed  points  are  of  service : 


Condition. 

Scales. 

Eyes. 

Gills. 

Body  in  general 
and  meat. 

Specific  gravity 

Fresh 

Glittering,  free 

Standing     out 

Gills,  lids,  and 

Solid;    placing 

Sink  in   water. 

of  slime,  firm- 

mouth closed 

fish    horizon- 

ly adherent 

tally   on    the  ; 

hand,  it  does 

not        bend. 

Meat       firm, 

t 

elastic,    tight 

on  bones 

Not   fresh,  stale 

More    or    less 

Red  bordered, 

Lids    open    or 

Body     bends 

Swim      on      the 

for  some   time 

easily  remov- 
able, slightly 

sunken;    cor- 
nea cloudy 

can  be  easily      easily,     espe- 
opened;    gills       cially  at   the 

water. 

slimy            or 

pale,    yellow,       tail   end;  o^- 

smeary 

dirfy,           or 

casionally 

grayish     red, 

bloating      of 

covered  with 

the  abdomen, 

the  same  kind 

which  may  be 

of  fluid;  odor       bluish        dis- 

disagreeable 

colored.   Fin- 

ger     impres- 

sions          are 

easily    made, 

and    remain  ; 

meat  is  soft, 

can  be  easily  \ 

removed  fro  in 

the  bone 

Putrefied 

Very  loose, 

Breaking 

Very      off-col- 

Withered, flab- 

Swim    on     the 

covered  with 

down;         are 

ored;           ex- 

by, soft,  pale,       water. 

a          smeary 
s  1  i  m  e  -  1  i  k  e 

frequently 
removed 

tremely      of- 
fensive   odor 

bloated.   The 
meatissloppy 

mass   of   dis- 

agreeable 

odor 

With  the'  possible  exception  of  carp,  the  age  of  fish  is  not  regarded.  To 
establish  it  a  scale  from  the  side  should  be  cleaned  in  alcohol  and  held  against 
the  light.  If  in  the  centre  of  this  scale  a  light  point  is  noticed,  the  carp  is  then 
of  one  summer.  In  a  two-summer  carp,  the  central  point  is  noticed,  sur- 
rounded by  a  ring;  that  of  three  summers  has  two  rings,  and  so  forth. 

Deceptions  in  Commerce  with  Fish  Meat. — Occasionally  a  species  of  codfish 
(Merluccius  vulgaris)  is  used  for  sea  salmon  (Raebiger).  According  to  Glage, 
perch  (Caraux  vulgaris)  should  not  be  sold  for  genuine  sprats.  Gadus  polla- 
chius  goes  as  Spanish  salmon.  The  meat  of  the  thorn  hound  (Acanthias  vulgaris) 
is  often  offered  as  sea  eel,  or  sea  salmon,  as  well  as  that  of  the  common  nose 
fish  (Chondrostoma  nasus),  a  cheap  fresh-water  fish  which  is  sold  as  mackerel, 
according  to  Rehmet. 

The  substitutions  of  sprats  for  sardines  or  anchovies  in  box  conserves  is 
determined,  according  to  Henseval,  by  a  spiny  comb  on  the  abdominal  side 
of  the  sprats,  which  is  characteristic  of  these  fish,  and  which  can  be  perceived 
by  passing  the  finger  over  the  body  in  the  direction  of  the  head. 

Diseases  of  Fish. — Of  the  diseases  of  fish,  the  following  should  be  referred  to: 

(a)  Nodular  disease  (morbus  nodulosus,  fishpox)  commonly  occurs  in  barbs, 
carp,  trench,  perch,  pike,  and  red  eye.  It  is  produced  by  myxosporidise  (myxo- 


EXAMINATION  AND  JUDGING  OF  FOWLS,  GAME,  FISH,  ETC.     349 

bolus).  The  latter  are  located  in  the  epithelia  of  the  skin,  muscles,  gills,  and 
in  the  internal  organs,  and  produce  cyst-like  tumors,  swellings,  and  abscesses. 
In  the  rump  muscles  of  various  species  of  salmon,  cysts  may  appear  the  size 
of  hazelnuts  produced  by  myxosporidise  (Henneguya  zschokkei)  which  displace 
the  muscle  and  become  visible  externally  in  the  form  of  boils.  The  meat  has 
a  yellowish  color,  becomes  soft,  jelly-like,  and  tastes  bitter. 

(6)  Fish  Measles. — The  plerocercoid  of  the  bothriocephalus  latus  (broad 
tapeworm  of  man)  lives  in  the  muscles  and  the  various  viscera  of  the  pike, 
turbot,  perch,  trout,  grayling,  salmon,  and  its  varieties.  In  Germany  these 
measles  occur  principally  in  fish  from  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  from  the  East  Prussian 
Seas,  but  may  be  also  observed  in  those  from  the  Starnberger  Sea. 

These  worm-like  plerocercoid  are  8  to  30  mm.  long,  not  encapsulated,  and 
lie  slightly  curved  with  their  grayish-white  indistinctly  annulated  bodies. 
They  are  easily  found  on  the  pyloric  appendices  of  the  turbot;  they  may  also 
occur  in  the  caviar  of  pike. 

FIG.  149 


a         b 

Plerocercoid  of  Bothriocephalus  latus,  from  the  musculature  of  the  pike:   a,  head  extended: 

b,  head  drawn  in. 

Cysts  of  3.5  mm.  long  and  1.5  mm.  broad,  containing  the  larva  of  Tcenia 
tetrarhynchus,  were  found  in  the  meat  of  codfish  and  halibut,  but  they  are  harm- 
less for  man  (Bergmann). 

(c)  The  young  form  of  the  Ascaris  copsularia,  described  by  Leuckart  as 
Filaria  piscium,  lives  as  a  2  to  5  cm.  long  encapsulated  round  worm  in  the  meat 
of  various  salt-water  fish,  and  especially  of  the  Gadus  callarias  .(a  species  of 
codfish).    Cooking  the  meat  facilitates  their  finding,  as  in  the  process  the  worms 
turn  red-brown  in  color. 

(d)  Muscle  distomes  of  various  kinds  are  not  infrequent  in  fish. 

(e)  The  young  state  of  the  Distomum  felineum,  which  produces  cancer-like 
affections  of  the  bile  passages  in  the  liver  of  man,  is  supposed  to  live,  accord- 
ing to  Askanazy,  in  the  red  eye  (Leuciscus  rutilus);  however,  thus  far  only 
the  eggs  of  the  parasite  have  been  found  in  this  fish. 

(/)  The  various  infectious  diseases  of  fish  can  be  left  unconsidered,  as  the 
fish  with  such  affections  spoil  rapidly  and  are  seldom  placed  on  the  market. 
For  details,  see  Hoier's  Handbook  of  the  Disedses  of  Fish,  and  Ostertag's  Hand- 
book of  Meat  Inspection. 

According  to  Robert,  the  Bacillus  piscicidus  agilis  (Sieber)  produces  a  septi- 
cemic  affection  in  carp,  which  may  also  become  injurious  to  man. 

Judgment  of  Diseased  Fish. — Fish  with  bothriocephalis  measles  are  injurious 
to  health.  In  all  other  diseases  the  meat  is,  as  a  rule,  to  be  considered  as  highly 
spoiled. 

Postmortem  changes  in  fish  meat  appear  rapidly,  and  in  putrid  fish  poisons 
develop  which  act  more  intensely  than  the  putrefactive  toxins  in  meat  of  warm- 
blooded animals.  The  fish  poison,  according  to  van  Ermengem,  is  similar  to 
sausage  poison,  and  appears  to  be  strongest  at  the  beginning  of  putrefaction. 

Crustaceans,  Mollusks,  and  Amphibians. — Crabs  and  lobsters  should  only 
be  offered  for  sale  alive,  as  they  spoil  quickly  when  boiled.  Crabs  boiled  after 
they  have  died  have  distended  bodies,  and  the  caudal  fin  is  not  rolled  in.  A 
lobster  which  has  been  boiled  shortly  before  death  has  the  caudal  end  turned 


350     EXAMINATION  OF  PREPARED  AND  PRESERVED  MEATS 

toward  the  abdominal  side,  and  can  be  readily  moved  up  and  down  ("Wippen"), 
If  the  lobster  is  boiled  some  time  after  death,  the  meat  of  the  caudal  portion 
cannot  be  taken  out  intact;  it  crumbles  between  the  fingers. 

Of  diseases  there  should  be  mentioned  the  "  spotted  disease"  which  produces 
black  spots  on  the  shell,  and  is  caused  by  Oidium  astaci,  and  the  crab  plague, 
found  by  Hofer  to  be  produced  by  the  Bacterium  pestis  astaci  in  the  muscles, 
is  also  pathogenic  for  fish.  Mycosis  astacina  is  accompanied  by  milky  dis- 
coloration of  the  under  side  and  mortification  of  single  limbs  of  crabs. 

Canned  lobster  is  always  alkaline,  even  in  an  unobjectionable  fresh  state. 
Adulterations  occur  with  the  Palimiurus  vulgaris.  As  these  shell  crabs  have 
no  claws,  the  canned  products  are  often  sold  as  "lobsters  without  claws." 

Occasionally  the  inferior  quality  North  Sea  crab  is  boiled  in  fuchsin  water 
and  sold  as  Baltic  Sea  crab.  The  coloring  is  then  spotted,  and  the  eggs  under 
the  abdomen  are  bright  red;  by  boiling  crabs  in  alcohol  the  artificial  coloring 
matter  may  be  extracted.  Furthermore,  the  zoological  signs  should  be  con- 
sidered. 

Dead  oysters  show  open  shells,  and  at  the  beginning  of  decomposition  a 
black  ring  appears  on  their  inner  surface.  They  very  soon  develop  a  disagree- 
able odor.  According  to  Bardet,  all  oysters  are  diseased  during  summer.  They 
show  a  milky  appearance,  and  their  liver  is  greatly  enlarged,  gray  and  white. 
To  obtain  a  green  color,  oysters  are  placed  in  a  copper  acetate  solution,  whereby 
they  turn  grass  green  but  not  dark  green.  If  vinegar  is  poured  over  such  oysters 
an  inserted  iron  needle  will  show  a  metallic  copper  luster,  while  with  the  addi- 
tion of  ammonia  the  oysters  turn  a  dark  blue  (Springfield). 

That  oysters  may  be  carriers  of  typhoid  bacilli  has  been  repeatedly  established. 

The  common  mussel  (clams)  is  dead  when  the  shells  do  not  close  after  they 
are  taken  out  of  the  water.  Certain  mussels,  especially  those  from  stagnant 
water,  may  contain  poisons,  the  development  and  nature  of  which  are  still 
obscure.  Mytilotoxin  occurs  principally  in  the  liver,  and  in  man  produces 
the  poisoning  called  mytilotoxism,  which  belongs  to  the  ichthyotoxisrn  group 
of  poisoning  (page  357).  Poisonous  mussels  are  supposed  to  produce  a  sweetish, 
nauseating,  bouillon  odor;  they  are  also  less  pigmented,  and  their  shells  are 
more  easily  broken  and  are  broader  than  those  which  are  not  poisonous.  The 
liver  is  larger  and  more  mellow.  Water  in  which  poisonous  mussels  are  boiled 
appears  bluish;  that  of  healthy  mussels  is  light.  The  meat  of  poisonous  mussels 
is  yellow,  that  of  the  non-poisonous  is  whitish.  Placed  in  alcohol,  poisonous 
mussels  color  it  a  strong  golden  yellow;  the  non-poisonous  scarcely  make  any 
noticeable  change. 

According  to  Salkowski,  if  this  solution  is  heated  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric 
acid  in  a  reagent  glass,  the  poisonous  solution  turns  a  grayish  green,  while  the 
non-poisonous  remains  almost  colorless. 

In  snails,  turtles,  and  frogs'  legs,  special  changes  and  injurious  effects  were 
not  observed. 

Judgment. — On  account  of  the  great  danger  which  diseased,  poisonous,  or 
decomposing  crustaceans  and  shell  fish  produce  to  human  health  (mytilotoxism), 
such  food  should  be  positively  withheld  from  human  consumption. 


CHAPTER    XI 

MEAT  POISONINGS 

IN  this  chapter  special  diseases  of  animals  are  not  treated,  but  only 
the  diseases  of  man  which  appear  as  a  result  of  meat  consumption,  and 
which  on  account  of  the  symptomatic  picture  are  designated  poisonings. 

While  nothing  could  be  added  here  regarding  meat  inspection  proper, 
these  meat  poisonings  cannot  be  left  undiscussed,  as  they  are  of  great 
importance  to  meat  hygiene,  and  their  etiological  relations  are  noted 
partly  in  important  diseases  of  animals  and  partly  in  particular  changes 
of  the  meat. 

Poisonings  which  are  to  be  traced  to  consumption  of  meat  can  be 
arranged,  according  to  van  Ermengem,  into  three  groups  with  reference 
to  their  etiology — namely,  meat  poisoning  as  a  result  of  microorganisms 
which  belong  to  the  group  of  the  Bacillus  enteriiidis;  meat  poisoning 
through  the  Bacterium  coli  and  the  proteus  group;  and  meat  poisoning, 
or  botulism,  produced  by  the  Bacillus  botulinus. 

MEAT  POISONING  AS  A  RESULT  OF  BACILLUS  ENTERITIDIS 

The  nature  of  meat  poisonings  which  are  produced  by  the  group  of 
Bacillus  enteritidis,  consists  either  in  an  intoxication  of  the  human 
body  "with  chemical  poisons  (bacterial  toxins,  toxalbumens,  toxigenic 
substances),  developed  by  the  microorganisms  in  the  animal  body, 
or  else  in  an  infection  with  the  bacteria  themselves;  or  finally  in  a 
united  action  of  toxic  substances  and  the  bacilli  of  infection. 

In  so-called  paratyphoid  meat  poisoning  there  enters  into  consideration  the 
action  of  the  metabolic  products  of  bacteria  which  in  themselves  are  not  poison- 
ous, but  at  the  same  time  increase  the  action  and  aggressiveness  of  the  bacilli. 

The  character  of  the  diseases  developed  in  this  manner  in  man 
varies  extraordinarily.  According  to  van  Ermengem  the  symptoms 
in  general  show  an  acute  course  and  develop  as  an  attack  of  cholerine, 
cholera  nostras,  or  an  inflammatory  gastro-enteritis  (febris  gastrica), 
sometimes  accompanied  by  muscular  weakness  or  ataxy.  The  symp- 
toms may,  therefore,  act  delusively  in  a  typhoid  condition.  Frequently, 
however,  they  can  be  hardly  distinguished  from  a  gastro-intestinal 
catarrh. 

Convalescence  is  always  slow:  relapses  and  even  fever  of  two  months' 
duration  (Neter)  may  occur.  Mortality  hardly  exceeds  2  to  5  per  cent. 

Without  doubt  the  various  forms  of  the  disease  are  greatly  influenced 
by  the  nature  and  intensity  of  the  poisons  in  consumed  meat,  by  their 
quantity,  preparation,  etc. 


352  MEAT  POISONINGS 

Since  there  is  no  uniform  typical  clinical  picture  in  meat  poisoning, 
a  diagnosis  of  poisoning  by  meat  can  only  be  established  by  connecting 
a  concrete  affection  with  corresponding  complex  symptoms,  with  the 
history  of  consumption  of  certain  meat  foods,  and  with  the  absence  of 
other  kinds  of  disease-producing  influences.  That  suspicion  of  meat 
poisoning  is  justifiable  if  symptoms  occur  soon  after  the  ingestion  of 
meat  appears  self-evident,  but  the  time  of  incubation  may  also  extend 
over  several  days. 

Etiology. — Extensive  statistics  show  that  septic  and  pyemic  affec- 
tions and  their  various  forms  in  food  animals  (page  297)  are  the  principal 
causes  of  meat  poisoning  proper.  Since  these  affections  frequently 
induce  emergency  slaughter,  it  is  not  surprising  that  by  far  the  greatest 
number  of  meat-poisoning  cases  may  be  traced  ultimately  to  emergency 
slaughtered  animals. 

To  what  extent  the  bacteria  of  the  enteritidis  group  play  a  part  in 
the  development  of  septic  and  pyemic  affections  has  not  yet  been 
explained.  The  injurious  properties  in  a  diseased  food  animal  may 
be  distributed  throughout  the  entire  meat  or  they  may  be  confined 
only  to  single  parts  of  the  viscera.  In  both  instances  the  virulence  of 
the  meat  or  viscera  may  be  widely  different,  and  accordingly  the  degree 
of  the  poisoning  may  vary  greatly.  The  virulence  of  the  meat  depends 
on  the  severity  and  nature  of  the  malady  of  the  food  animal  at  the 
time  of  slaughter  and  the  bleeding  of  the  animal  as  well  as  on  the 
nature  of  the  storage  and  preparation  of  the  meat. 

With  reference  to  storage,  it  must  be  accepted  that  under  certain 
conditions  of  heat  and  dampness  the  postmortem  poisonous  properties 
of  meat  are  further  increased  by  continuing  the  activities  of  the  causal 
agents  of  the  infection.  Thus,  Basenau,  Poels,  and  Dhont  have  proved 
that  species  of  bacteria  closely  related  to  the  Bacillus  enteritidis  develop 
luxuriantly  in  the  muscular  tissues,  even  at  a  low  temperature  (10°  C.). 
The  preparation  of  the  meat  plays  an  important  part.  Experience  has 
shown  that  the  consumption  of  raw  meat,  as  a  rule,  produces  more 
severe  disturbances  than  boiled  and  roasted  preparations.  In  the 
latter  the  exciters  of  infection  which  exist  in  the  meat  proper  are  to 
a  great  extent  destroyed,  and  thus  the  danger  which  threatens  human 
beings  through  the,  multiplication  of  these  causal  factors  is  averted. 
That  the  chemical  poisonous  substances  (toxins  of  the  Bacillus  enteri- 
tidis) which  are  present  in  the  meat  are  not  destroyed  by  culinary 
boiling  or  roasting  has  been  frequently  established  by  experience 
(see  below),  and  this  serves  as  a  proof  that  the  nature  of  a  large  number 
of  poisonings  by  meat  is  an  intoxication.  It  is  readily  apparent  that 
these  toxic  substances  may  be  weakened  through  the  preparation 
of  the  meat  by  soaking  or  through  the  formation  of  chemical  com- 
binations, which  at  the  same  time  cause  an  attenuation  of  the  poison 
in  the  meat.  It  has  been  shown  by  careful  observation  that  in  certain 
cases  the  meat  broth  contained  pronounced  toxic  properties. 

As  individual  organs,  especially  the  liver  and  kidneys,  were  found 
to  be  poisonous  while  the  meat  proper  and  the  muscular  structure 


MEAT  POISONING  AS  A  RESULT  OF  BACILLUS  ENTERITIDIS     353 

of  the  same  animal  proved  to  be  harmless,  it  must  be  accepted  that 
these  organs  were  either  exclusively  the  seats  of  the  toxic  elements, 
or  that  by  virtue  of  their  physical  functions  they  absorbed  larger 
quantities  of  the  poisonous 'substances. 

Finally,  the  instances  in  which  the  meat  became  virulent  only  on 
postmortem  can  be  readily  understood  by  the  above-mentioned 
observations  of  Basenau,  Poels,  and  Dhont,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that 
the  Bacillus  enteritidis  is  extensively  distributed  in  putrefying  organic 
material  and  also  in  many  carcasses  (Gartner). 

According  to  recent  observations,  cases  of  poisoning  resulting  from 
the  ingestion  of  fish  meat  and  oysters  (Netter,  Herdmann,  and  Boyce, 
Vivaldi  and  Rodella),  as  well  as  cases  of  so-called  paratyphus  of  unknown 
cause,  belong  within  the  sphere  of  action  of  the  Bacillus  enteritidis. 

Etiology  of  the  Toxicity  of  Meat. — The  bacteria  of  the  group  of  Bacillus 
enteritidis,  which  produce  the  poisonous  qualities  of  the  meat,  possess, 
according  to  van  Ermengem,  the  following  characteristics: 

1.  Short  bacteria,  very  frequently  of  ovoid  form  (coccus  bacilli)  of  0.2  to  0.4 //, 
usually  arranged  in  pairs;  sometimes  they  stain  irregularly,  especially  in  some- 
what older  gelatin  cultures,  as  well  as  in  peritoneal  and  pleuritic  exudates,  in 
the  liver,  etc.,  so  that  they  resemble  the  bacteria  of  hemorrhagic  septicemia. 

2.  They  do  not  stain  by  Gram's  method. 

3.  They  are  quite  motile,  resembling  the  typhoid  bacillus,  and  possess  per- 
ipherally arranged  flagella,  4  to  8p  long,  but  sometimes  they  are  more  than  10 
to  12  n  long. 

4.  The  superficial  colonies  on  gelatin  are  quite  polymorphous;  frequently 
they  are  only  slightly  distinguished  from  those  of  the  Bacillus  coli,  and  while 
they  are  in  general  more  transparent,  they  are  less  lobate,  and  show  usually 
a  transparent  border. 

5.  They  do  not  form  indol,  or  at  the  most  they  produce  it  only  in  extremely 
small  quantities. 

6.  They  do  not  coagulate  milk,  but  after  about  ten  days  reduce  its  opaque- 
ness somewhat.     In  fact,  it  renders  the  milk  slightly  transparent,  and  causes 
it,-  at  the  same  time,  to  take  up  a  yellowish  color  similar  to  coffee  and  milk 
and  become  markedly  alkaline. 

7.  They  always  ferment  dextrose  with  abundant  gas  formation,  and  also 
generally  decompose  the  other  kinds  of  sugars — lactose,  galactose,  maltose, 
cane  sugar,  etc. — and  even   glycerin  with   gas   formation,  excepting  certain 
varieties  of    the  organisms,  as  for  instance  those  described  by  Fischer  and 
Durham,  which  do  not  affect  lactose. 

8.  They  cloud  bouillon  very  quickly,  and  a  membrane  forms  on  the  surface 
which  tears  readily,  but  no  distinguishing  odor  is  communicated  to  the  nutritive 
media. 

9.  On  potatoes  the  growth  is  frequently  barely  visible;  in  other  cases  it  is 
quite  thick,  dirty  yellowish,  or  of  a  brownish  development. 

10.  The  quite  luxuriant  growth  in  Petruschki's  litmus  milk  effects  no  change 
in  the  color,  nor  is  there  an  acid  production. 

1 1 .  A  more  or  less  pronounced  formation  of  fluorescence  takes  place  in  the 
neutral-red  agar  of  Rothberger  with  a  0.3  per  cent,  addition  of  dextrose,  the 
nutritive  substance  is  discolored  after  eighteen  to  twenty-four  hours,  and  gas 
is  produced. 

12.  On  the  nutritive  media  of  Drigalski-Conradi,  bluish  colonies  develop  afte^r 
sixteen  to  eighteen  hours,  which  are  somewhat  larger  and  less  transparent  than 
those  of  the  typhoid  bacilli. 

These  microorganisms  are  further  distinguished  from  the  more  or  less  related 
23 


354  MEAT  POISONINGS 

species  with  which  they  might  at  first  be  confused,  as  for  instance  with  certain 
varieties  of  the  Bacillus  coli,  by  their  great  virulence,  and  by  their  characteristic 
production  of  toxins,  which  are  resistant  to  high  temperatures.  These  poisons 
penetrate  the  nutritive  media  and  may  be  demonstrated  in  the  filtrate  which 
is  free  of  the  organisms. 

The  mode  of  infection  by  the  Bacillus  enteritidis  and  its  passage  into 
food  animals  cannot  be  taken  up  here.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  a  pollution  of  the  latter  may  occur  through  contact 
with  the  bacilli  without  the  presence  of  an  infection  in  the  animal 
itself;  the  latter,  however,  does  occur  in  rare  instances. 

The  paratyphus  bacilli  need  not  be  considered  here. 

That  the  Bacillus  suipestifer,  notwithstanding  its  relation  to  the  paratyphus 
bacilli  and  to  the  enteritidis  group,  does  not  belong  to  the  meat-poisoning 
bacteria,  has  been  established  by  C.  Joest. 

De  Nobele  convinced  himself  that  the  muscle  juice  of  animals  infected 
with  microorganisms  of  the  Bacillus  enteritidis  group  possesses  pronounced 
agglutinative  properties  toward  the  latter.  According  to  this  investigation, 
it  would  be  sufficient  to  test  the  muscle  plasma  in  quite  strong  concentrations 
(1  to  10  to  1  to  20)  with  each  of  the  representatives  of  the  two  groups  of  micro- 
organisms which  he  established.  As  the  expressed  muscle  juice  of  healthy 
animals  does  not  agglutinate  the  microorganisms  in  question  even  in  a  con- 
centration of  1  to  1,  a  definite  result  could  be  obtained  by  this  test  within  two 
hours.  It  would  be  necessary  to  resort  to  the  cultural  method  only  in  case  the 
agglutination  gave  negative  results.  It  would  be  advantageous  to  keep  the 
meat  to  be  examined  for  twenty-four  hours  after  slaughter  at  a  temperature 
ot  18  to  20  C.,  and  to  make  the  culture  inoculations  only  after  that  time.  By 
this  procedure  a  marked  increase  of  the  microorganisms  is  obtained,  which 
are  not  numerous  immediately  after  slaughter.  On  the  other  hand,  through 
this  method  the  results  of  examination  are  unfortunately  much  longer  delayed. 

In  scientific  or  forensic  examinations  regarding  the  poisonous  qualities  of 
meat,  the  sero-diagnosis  method  possesses  a  great  importance  for  the  distinction 
of  the  suspicious  bacilli  found  thereby. 

Also  for  the  diagnosis  of  poisoning  in  men  and  animals  by  meat,  the  agglu- 
tination test  of  the  blood  of  affected  individuals  may  be  of  value. 

Occurrences  of  Poisonings. — The  first  critical  enumeration  of  cases 
before  1880  is  found  in  the  work  of  Siedamgrotzky.  The  review  of 
similar  poisonings  by  Bollinger  in  the  same  year  gives  an  account 
of  17  endemic  poisonings  by  meat,  which  probably  belonged  principally 
to  the  enteritidis  group,  affecting  almost  2400  cases,  with  35  deaths. 
The  statistics  of  Ostertag,  taken  up  in  his  Handbook,  increases  the 
number  of  poisonings  by  meat  to  90  outbreaks,  which  he  obtained 
from  the  literature  of  the  last  twenty-three  years.  These  90  outbreaks 
involve  more  than  4000  individual  cases,  of  which  the  largest  portion 
falls  to  Germany. 

For  the  recognition  of  poisonous  qualities  in  meat,  the  examination 
for  bacteria  could  be  carried  out  by  Basenau's  method  (page  148); 
however,  such  a  bacteriologic  examination  could  be  used  in  practice 
only  in  emergencies. 

This  would  also  be  the  case  with  the  method  of  examination  sug- 
gested by  De  Nobele.  Stress  should  be  laid  on  the  prevention  of 


MEAT  POISONING  WITH  BACILLUS  COLI  355 

poisonings  by  meat  through  a  conscientious  examination  of  food  animals 
before  and  after  slaughter  by  the  veterinary  inspector.  As  has  been 
already  emphasized,  the  postmortem  examination  should  be  especially 
carried  out  with  the  greatest  care  and  conscientiousness  in  emergency 
slaughter,  and  should  be  executed  with  the  application  of  all  technical 
methods  available  (page  146). 

Although  there  will  be  certain  doubtful  cases  for  the  practised 
expert  in  which  the  rendering  of  a  decision  will  not  be  easy,  at  the 
same  time  it  will  be  possible  for  him,  by  considering  and  valuing  all 
clinical  and  pathologic  characteristics  of  septic  and  pyemic  affec- 
tions, to  prevent  the  occurrences  of  poisonings  by  meat  almost  com- 
pletely, or  at  any  rate  to  the  greatest  extent  possible,  according  to 
the  present  standpoint  of  scientific  meat  inspection. 

MEAT  POISONING  WITH  BACILLUS  COLI,  PROTEUS  SPECIES,  ETC. 

This  form  of  meat  poisoning  relates  to  a  poisonous  action  of  meat, 
originating  in  infection  of  entirely  healthy  animals,  sometimes  only 
after  slaughter,  with  pathogenic  or  saprophytic  organisms  which 
produce  toxins.  Sometimes  such  disease-producing  meat  is  visibly 
changed,  decomposed,  or  affected  with  slight  putrefaction  by  the 
action  of  bacteria,  but  in  numerous  cases  absolutely  no  changes  are 
noticeable  in  poisonous  meat.  The  latter  was  principally  observed  in 
so-called  chopped-meat  poisonings  (see  below). 

Nature  and  Manifestations. —The  cases  belonging  here  represent 
principally  pure  intoxication  by  the  toxins  produced  by  microorganisms 
in  the  injurious  meat.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  early  manifesta- 
tions of  the  disease  which  appear  soon  after  ingestion  of  the  meat 
(three  to  four  hours).  Of  course,  intoxication  may  be  combined  with 
a  pathogenic  infection  where  severe  symptoms  of  poisoning  and  a 
protracted  course  of  the  sickness  develop  after  some  time  has  elapsed 
as  a  result  of  the  increase  of  injurious  microorganisms  in  the  digestive 
apparatus  of  affected  persons.  The  manifestations  of  these  meat 
poisonings  vary  considerably,  and  are  similar  to  those  which  are 
observed  in  genuine  poisonings  by  meat.  Nausea,  vomiting,  diarrhea, 
giddiness,  headache,  dizziness,  and  debility  occur,  which  may  increase 
to  faintings;  while  in  children  and  weak  persons,  cholera-like  symp- 
toms have  also  been  observed.  Recovery  is  the  rule,  but  deaths  have 
also  been  observed,  especially  in  children.  According  to  van  Ermengem, 
two  saprophytes  come  into  consideration  in  the  etiology  of  this  group 
of  meat  poisonings.  Both  are  common  inhabitants  of  putrid  animal 
substance.  They  are  the  Bacillus  coli,  and  the  Bacillus  proteus  with 
its  numerous  varieties — for  instance,  Proteus  radians  (Gutzeit);  also 
the  microbe  named  by  Hamburger  as  Bacillus  cellulceformis,  which 
differs  somewhat  from  the  Bacillus  coli,  but  appears  also  to  be  of  etio- 
logic  importance.  As  these  bacteria  play  a  secondary  part  in  the 
putrefaction  of  meat,  the  injurious  properties  of  such  meat  may  be 
traced  to  them. 


356  MEAT  POISONINGS 

The  injurious  action  of  these  bacteria  consists  principally  in  the 
formation  of  toxins  which  are  not  destroyed  by  ordinary  boiling  and 
roasting  of  meat,  although  they  are  somewhat  attenuated.  Experience, 
it  is  true,  has  shown  that  boiled  and  roasted  meat  foods  have  produced 
a  great  number  of  poisonings,  but  they  were  mostly  milder  than  when 
the  meat  was  consumed  without  previous  heating,  or  was  insufficiently 
boiled  or  roasted. 

The  intensity  of  the  decomposition  of  meat  bears  no  relation  to  its 
presumed  poisonous  character;  and  in  this,  experience  also  has  taught 
that  frequently  only  slight  manifestations  of  decomposition  were 
associated  with  severe  poisonous  actions. 

A  statistical  arrangement  of  -poisonings  is  not  possible,  since  the 
affections  belonging  here,  with  the  exception  of  the  chopped-meat 
poisonings,  are  not,  as  a  rule,  of  epidemic  character,  but  are  limited 
to  individual  cases,  the  scientific  investigations  of  which  are  made 
very  difficult  for  obvious  reasons. 

The  recognition  of  the  poisonous  quality  of  meat  belonging  to  this 
group  is  practically  impossible,  as  has  been  mentioned,  since  objective 
changes  may  be  entirely  absent,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  the 
poison.  In  decomposing  meat  the  signs  described  on  page  324  are 
sufficient  to  demonstrate  putrefaction  of  the  meat  and  to  judge  the 
same,  according  to  the  views  given  on  page  326. 

For  the  prevention  of  this  group  of  meat  poisonings  it  is  necessary 
to  exclude  all  such  meat  from  traffic  in  which  putrefaction  has  been 
demonstrated,  or  which  shows  manifestations  of  decomposition.  Other- 
wise, these  meat  poisonings  must  be  prevented  by  the  care  of  the 
housewife  or  servants  in  selecting  for  use  only  unobjectionable  meat. 
When  suspected  meat  cannot  be  unconditionally  excluded  from  human 
consumption,  it  should  be  utilized  only  after  a  complete  boiling  or 
thorough  roasting. 

The  so-called  chopped-meat  poisonings  have  been  observed  only  in  the 
warmer  seasons.  This  alone  indicates  that  the  poisoning  depends  upon  a 
pollution  of  the  easily  decomposing  meat  with  bacteria  (see  bacterial  content, 
page  86),  which  grow  well  on  the  meat  and  form  toxins. 

More  extensive  chopped-meat  poisonings  were  almost  exclusively  observed 
at  places  where  a  large  amount  of  slightly  smoked  sausage  or  raw  meat  or 
partially  roasted  meat  had  been  consumed.  Recently,  epidemic  chopped-meat 
poisonings  were  observed  in  Chemnitz,  Dresden,  Gerbstadt,  Gera,  Halle  a.  S., 
Sulken,  Velbert,  Hamburg,  Berlin,  and  elsewhere,  affecting  over  600  people, 
with  several  deaths.  However,  isolated  cases  occur  every  summer. 

Lately,  chopped-meat  poisonings  have  been  observed  in  which  paratyphus 
bacilli  were  supposed  to  be  the  cause.  These  should  not  be  grouped  with 
the  chopped-meat  poisonings  proper,  but  with  the  meat  poisonings  of  the 
enteritidis  group. 

To  prevent  poisoning  by  chopped  meat,  it  is  advisable  not  to  keep 
it  at  a  summer  temperature  for  any  length  of  time;  wherefore,  the 
prohibition  of  the  use  of  preserving  substances  should  be  of  assistance; 
and  the  meat  should  not  be  consumed  in  a  raw  state  or  insufficiently 
prepared. 


BO  TV  LI  SM  357 


BOTULISM 

Certain  affections  in  man  produced  by  the  consumption  of  meat,  but 
which  deviate  by  characteristic  symptoms  from  both  of  the  previous 
groups,  are  designated  as  botulism  (allantiasis,  sausage  poisoning). 
The  name  "sausage  poisoning"  originates  from  the  fact  that  the  first 
critically  observed  cases  by  Justmus  Kerner  in  the  year  1820  were 
connected  with  the  ingestion  of  injurious  sausages,  and  also  later 
many  severe  affections  of  this  kind  could  be  traced  to  this  source. 

Here,  too,  most  of  the  poisonings  known  as  ichthyotoxism  and 
mytilotoxism,  which  are  produced  by  the  meat  of  fish,  mussels,  and 
other  shell  food,  should  be  classified. 

Nature  and  Manifestations. — Botulism  consists  in  an  intoxication 
of  the  human  organism  by  poisonous  substances,  which  are  produced 
by  the  Bacillus  botulinus,  named  and  discovered  by  van  Ermengem. 

The  symptoms,  especially  characteristic,  are  disturbances  in  the 
sight,  such  as  paralysis  in  the  region  of  the  optics,  oculomotorius 
(mydriasis),  trochlearis  abducens  facialis  (ptosis),  as  well  as  of  the 
lacrymalis  and  trigeminus  nerves;  they  may  occur  singly  or  in  associa- 
tion. Striking  manifestations  originating  in  the  digestive  apparatus 
are  frequently  absent  or  only  slightly  pronounced  and  passing.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  exists  a  persistent  constipation,  retention  of 
urine,  and  marked  debility. 

Fever  and  disturbances  in  consciousness  and  sensibility  are  absent. 
The  symptoms  of  the  disease  appear  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours 
after  the  meal;  occasionally,  however,  even  later.  There  are  great 
differences  in  the  severity  and  duration  of  the  disease.  The  mortality 
is  about  25  to  30  per  cent.,  much  higher  than  in  meat  poisonings. 

Etiology. — As  is  already  indicated  by  the  name,  botulism  is  chiefly 
caused  by  the  ingestion  of  sausages  which  are  infected  with  the  Bacillus 
botulinus,  producing  toxins.  But  as  this  organism  thrives  also  in 
other  meat  foods  (see  below),  the  most  varied  meat  inay  enter  into  the 
question  of  sausage  poisoning. 

Among  the  sausages  which  frequently  cause  poisoning  the  liver 
sausage,  as  well  as  other  visceral  and  jelly  sausages,  take  the  first 
place.  In  certain  localities  these  varieties  are  extensively  prepared, 
and  are  made  into  cured  sausages  by  smoking.  The  sausage  content 
itself  does  not  resist  putrefaction  to  any  extent.  Since  the  sausages 
usually  appear  in  large  sizes  when  prepared  in  so-called  home  slaughter 
for  domestic  consumption,  it  may  readily  occur  that  insufficient  boiling 
will  leave  the  bacteria  contained  within  the  sausages  undestroyed. 
The  bactericidal  action  of  the  smoking  is  also  only  slight  in  very  large 
sausages,  because  the  smoke  penetrates  with  difficulty.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  when  smoking  is  carried  on  for  only  a  few  hours  (during 
the  day),  as  frequently  happens  in  the  households  of  the  country. 

Proof  that  the  poisonous  effect  of  sausages  can  be  traced  to  bacteria 
lies  in  the  fact  that  other  meat  foods  in  the  state  of  putrefaction  pro- 


358  MEAT  POISONINGS 

duce  affections  entirely  analogous  to  those  of  sausage  poisoning.  Thus 
poisoning  properties  were  observed  in  partially  decomposed  hams, 
in  slightly  putrid  meat,  and  in  their  broth;  also  in  fermenting  pickled 
meat;  in  roasted  geese,  which  were  allowed  to  hang  undrawn  for  a 
day  in  the  cellar;  in  old  roast-mutton  gravy;  sausage  meat;  liver;  liver 
pate;  spoiled  canned  preserves,  etc.  At  the  same  time  the  respective 
foods  did  not  display  any  striking  changes,  and  showed  principally 
only  musty,  slightly  rancid,  sourish  odors  and  taste. 

The  Bacillus  botulinus  has  some  similarity  to  the  edema  bacillus;  it  is  4  to 
6//  long,  and  0.9  to  1.2  //  broad;  straight,  with  slightly  rounded  ends.  It  is  an 
anaerobe;  forms  oval  spores  at  the  end  of  the  rod;  grows  luxuriantly  on  alkaline 
media  at  18°  to  25°  C.,  and  develops  a  sharp  odor  of  butyric  acid.  At  higher 
degrees  of  temperature  (35°  to  37°)  it  grows  only  sparingly  and  without  the 
formation  of  toxins.  By  heating  half  an  hour  at  80°  C.  the  bacillus  becomes 
inactive  the  same  as  when  exposed  for  one  hour  at  10°  C.  As  the  bacillus 
does  not  grow  on  pork  containing  6  per  cent,  salt,  well-pickled  foods  which 
always  contain  a  large  quantity  of  salt  should  not  be  infected  with  it.  But 
as  pickling  is  frequently  quickly  and  superficially  accomplished,  pickled  and 
smoked  products  may  contain  Botulinus  bacilli  and  their  toxins. 

Van  Ermengem  classifies  the  Bacillus  botulinus  in  a  group  of  microorganisms 
newly  established  by  himself  the  toxigenic  saprophytes,  which  do  not  multiply 
in  the  living  body,  but  act  only  through  their  toxins.  The  enormous  poisoning 
action  of  their  toxins  appears  evident,  when  it  is  considered  that  for  instance 
1  to  2  drops  of  a  gelatin  culture,  or  0.001  cm.  of  dextrose  bouillon  culture  ad- 
ministered per  os  to  monkeys  or  guinea-pigs,  constitute  a  fatal  dose  in  from 
twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours. 

Occurrences  of  Poisonings. — Most  of  the  sausage  poisonings,  both 
epidemic  and  endemic  cases,  which  have  occurred  in  Wurtemberg, 
according  to  Ostertag,  can  be  accredited  to  the  lack  of  intelligence  by 
which  formerly  certain  kind  of  sausages,  as  liver  and  blood  sausages, 
were  prepared.  Sausage  poisonings  have  also  been  observed  in  Bavaria, 
Baden,  and  North  Germany,  although  less  frequently;  and  single  cases 
are  reported  in  the  literature  from  everywhere. 

Prevention  of  Botulism. — For  prevention  of  botulism  the  following 
statement  prepared  by  van  Ermengem,  besides  the  instructions  to  the 
public  on  the  proper  preparation  of  sausages,  is  worthy  of  consideration: 

1.  Preserved  food  substances,  which  are  exposed  to  anaerobic  bac- 
teria, must  never  be  consumed  in  a  raw  state,  but  should  be  properly 
cooked. 

2.  Preserved  food  substances  which  by  a  rancid  or  butyric  acid-like 
odor  arouse  suspicion  should  be  excluded  from  consumption. 

3.  For  pickling,  only  such  brine  containing  at  least  10  per  cent, 
common  salt  should   be  employed,  as  the  Bacillus  botulinus  cannot 
multiply  in  this  solution. 

From  a  therapeutic  standpoint,  the  antitoxin  serum  prepared  by  Kempner 
for  the  treatment  of  botulism  is  worthy  of  consideration. 


CHAPTER    XII 

HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE 

THE  history  of  meat  hygiene,  and  especially  of  meat  inspection, 
which  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  history  of  food  of  man,  need 
only  be  briefly  discussed  here,1  to  indicate  its  general  development. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  man  at  all  times,  at  least  as  far  as  his  appear- 
ance can  be  traced  paleontologically,  has  consumed  meat  food.  For 
Europe  especially,  it  may  be  considered  as  proved  that  the  paleolithic 
cave  dwellers  had  already  utilized  the  meat  of  various  living  animals 
and  fish.  The  meat  consumption  of  man  during  later  epochs,  may  with 
certainty  be  established  from  the  oldest  historical  traditions. 

The  oldest  data  in  the  history  of  meat  inspection  are  the  food  edicts 
of  the  Egyptians  which  designated  certain  animals,  the  hog  above  all, 
as  unclean,  and  excluded  their  meat  as  food  for  man.  The  Egyptian 
priests  held  to  this  with  great  strictness,  and  may  therefore  be  con- 
sidered as  the  first  representatives  of  a  method  of  meat  inspection. 

The  Egyptian  food  laws,  whose  prohibition  of  hog  meat  was  accepted 
by  all  the  Semitic  races  of  those  times,  were  without  doubt  prefigura- 
tive  for  the  Mosaic  food  laws  of  the  Israelites.  Among  the  Israelites 
the  priests  also  were  the  judges  of  the  meats;  this  is  accounted  for 
by  their  connection  with  the  extensive  religious  animal  offerings  and 
the  share  of  the  priests  in  the  meat  of  the  sacrificed  animal.  It  was 
required  that  these  sacrificed  animals,  and  in  a  broader  sense  all  the 
food  animals,  should  be  healthy  and  without  a  blemish. 

Otherwise,  animals  adapted  for  food  were  divided  into  clean  (rumi- 
nants, domestic  fowls,  and  birds  other  than  birds  of  prey,  as  well 
as  fish  having  fins  and  scales)  and  unclean  (solipeds,  hogs,  etc.).  The 
consumption  of  young  animals  was  interdicted,  and  the  prohibition 
against  consuming  fat,  blood,  and  meat  of  hogs  was  especially  strict. 
These  edicts  were  amplified  from  time  to  time,  particularly  during  the 
so-called  Talmudic  period,  which  extended  through  the  first  century 
A.D.,  by  specific  instructions  regarding  the  slaughter  and  examination 
of  food  animals  (page  41).  The  method  of  slaughter  was  especially 
considered  by  the  Jews  (page  44). 

Mohammedan  food  regulations,  even  of  today,  are  similar  to  the 
Israelite  and  Egyptian  food  laws.  The  Koran  considers  both  the  hog 
and  the  dog  as  unclean. 

In  contrast  to  the  views  regarding  the  meat  foods  of  the  Semitic 
races,  stand  those  of  the  old  Greeks  and  Romans.  Pork  was  not  inter- 

1  For  details,  see  Ostertag's  Handbuch  der  Fleischbeschau;  Baranski,  Anleitung  zur  Vieh-  und 
Fleischbeschau;  Goltz,  Geschichte  der  Fleischnahrung  und  Fleischnahrungsmittel. 


360  HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE 

dieted,  but  was  greatly  favored  by  the  Romans,  and  the  Greeks  likewise 
favored  the  meat  of  young  castrated  dogs.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
consumption  of  meat  of  lambs  which  were  not  shorn  at  one  time 
was  forbidden  to  the  Athenians,  and  the  Romans  disdained  the  meat 
of  goats  as  unhealthy.  Police  were  stationed  at  the  Athens  market 
from  the  earliest  times.  In  Rome,  since  388,  following  the  foundation 
of  the  city,  two  state  Aedils  provided  for  order  and  supervision  of  the 
stock  and  meat  markets,  where  also  an  official  inspection  of  meat 
was  conducted. 

The  salting  of  meat,  which  is  mentioned  by  Homer,  was  known  to 
the  Romans,  as  was  also  the  preparation  of  various  kinds  of  sausages 
(botuli  fry,  incisia,  slice  circelli  ring,  temacina  chopped  sausages)  and 
smoked  products.  Well-equipped  abattoirs  (larnense)  and  meat  markets 
(macelli)  existed,  according  to  Ostertag,  in  ancient  Rome.  The  old 
Roman  meat  control,  however,  was  not  further  developed,  for  it  ceased 
with  the  downfall  of  the  western  Roman  Empire. 

In  northern  Europe  and  among  the  ancient  Gauls  and  Germans 
there  are  no  traditions  regarding  a  supervision  of  meat  foods  or  on  any 
other  special  customs.  Not  until  after  the  spread  of  Christianity  were 
Old  Testament  food  laws  inaugurated,  which  were  strictly  supervised 
by  the  church.  The  prohibition  of  the  consumption  of  horse  meat, 
issued  by  Apostle  Bonifacius,  under  the  direction  of  Pope  Gregory 
III,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  may  be  regarded  as  the 
earliest  special  food  edict  in  old  Germany.  It,  however,  was  adopted 
not  so  much  from  a  hygienic  standpoint  as  from  consideration  to  the 
horse  offerings  of  the  heathen  Germans.  Bonifacius,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Pope  Zacharias,  later  prescribed  that  bacon  and  pork  should 
not  be  eaten  otherwise  than  cooked.  The  consumption  of  diseased 
meat  from  dead  and  torn  animals  was  also  prohibited. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  civil  authorities  of  Germany  gradually 
paid  more  attention  to  meat,  which  formed  the  principal  food  of  the 
people  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  meat  industry  developed  into  a 
particular  business,  which  was  later  highly  respected.  The  earliest 
German  records  in  which  meat  traffic  received  consideration  go  back 
to  the  year  1120  (documents  of  the  foundation  of  the  city  of  Freiburg); 
butchers,  however,  are  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  1156,  in  the 
"lustitia  civitatis  Augsburg"  as  "carnifices."  As  the  trade  developed, 
the  individual  control  of  the  meat  industry  in  relation  to  the  orderly 
traffic  of  meats  not  only  progressed  more  and  more,  but  the  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  authorities  concerned  themselves  about  it.  Thus  market- 
able and  non-marketable  meat  are  distinguished  for  the  first  time 
in  a  record  which  was  imparted  by  Bishop  Lutold  in  the  year  1248 
to  the  butchers'  guild  at  Basel. 

The  decrees  issued  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  relative 
to  meat  traffic  were  principally  of  local  significance  for  individual 
cities,  but  they  contain  important  meat-inspection  regulations.  Thus 
are  especially  mentioned  the  measles  of  hogs,  the  bloating  of  meat, 
immaturity  of  calves,  meat  of  emaciated  and  diseased  animals,  pearly 


HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE  361 

disease,  etc.,  and  in  the  year  1276  compulsory  slaughter  as  well  as 
compulsory  inspection  and  declaration  of  sick  animals,  was  ordered 
for  the  public  abattoir  in  Augsburg. 

That  state  regulations  were  also  found  necessary  in  certain  states 
becomes  evident  from  a  decree  of  the  state  of  Mecklenburg  for  the 
year  of.  1572,  according  to  which  the  butchers  were  to  be  controlled 
by  the  city  bailiff  and  two  competent  persons. 

After  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  little  of  the  former  fraternal  and  official 
supervising  regulations  in  the  domain  of  meat  traffic  remained,  and 
only  toward  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  did  the  administration  again  direct  some  attention 
to  meat  and  the  slaughter  of  food  animals.  Without  regarding  local 
regulations,  the  decrees  which  existed  at  these  times  for  Mecklenburg, 
Hanover,  Braunschweig-Luneburg,  and  the  electorate  of  Saxony, 
as  well  as  the  general  decrees  of  Baden,  are  worthy  of  mention.  The 
importation  of  pickled  and  smoked  meats  was  even  then  prohibited 
by  certain  States  (Hanover,  Saxony),  and  cities  (Leipzig),  without 
doubt  on  account  of  the  fear  of  rinderpest.  To  a  large  extent,  this 
led  to  a  decree  in  Baden  in  the  year  1772,  requiring  the  professional 
opinion  of  the  district  physician  on  cattle  which  were  affected  with 
an  infectious  disease;  in  other  diseases  the  stock  examiner  had  to  pass 
upon  the  fitness  of  meat  for  consumption,  in  order  that  meat,  which 
at  that  time  was  very  expensive,  should  not  be  unnecessarily  with- 
held as  human  food.  Even  somewhat  earlier,  in  the  year  1761,  the 
government  of  Bavaria  prescribed  a  renewal  of  the  inspection  of  food 
animals  by  official  meat  inspectors.  At  that  time  a  change  was  also 
effected  in  the  judging  of  pearly  disease.  Until  then  it  was  accepted 
as  identical  with  a  venereal  affection;  and,  therefore,  the  meat  of  all 
such  affected  cattle  was  destroyed  without  further  consideration. 
But  after  Graumann,  in  1784,  explained  that  the  nodules  of  pearly 
disease  were  not  injurious  to  human  health,  the  meat  and  milk  of 
cattle  affected  with  this  pearly  disease  were  no  longer  considered  as 
unfit  for  food. 

Until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  was  little  scientific 
system  in  food  regulations  which  gradually  appeared  with  the  estab- 
lishment of  veterinary  schools,  on  a  basis  of  the  medical  views  of  those 
days.  These,  however,  were  not  favorable  to  meat  inspection,  since  the 
teachings  in  regard  to  the  injurious  effects  of  meat  in  certain  diseased 
animals  led  to  the  view  that  no  danger  threatened  human  health  from 
consumption  of  meat  of  diseased  animals.  With  this  not  only  was 
a  supervision  of  the  meat  traffic  declared  superfluous,  but  also  the 
formerly  recognized  hygienic  importance  of  the  public  abattoirs  was 
ignored  to  such  an  extent  that  in  1826  a  Prussian  ministerial  script 
even  declared  the  introduction  of  compulsory  slaughter  on  the  part 
of  the  local  authorities  as  inadmissible.  As  a  result,  the  number  of 
public  abattoirs  in  Prussia  not  only  decreased,  but  even  abattoirs 
existing  already  were  abandoned. 

The  conditions  of  meat  inspection  in   South   Germany  were   not 


362  HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE 

quite  as  unfavorable.  In  Baden  and  Kurpfaltz  the  institution  of 
animal  inspection  was  continued,  and  in  the  year  1802  a  Ministerial 
decree  was  issued  in  Wiirtemberg  for  the  prevention  of  very  frequent 
poisonings  by  sausage.  In  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria  the  necessity 
of  recognized  meat  inspection  was  soon  seen,  and  first  expressed  in 
a  meat-inspection  ordinance  for  Southern  Bavaria,  October  21,  1836, 
and  for  Schwaben  and  Neuburg,  January  10,  1857.  Further  meat- 
inspection  regulations  followed  for  Wiirtemberg,  March  14,  1860; 
Northern  Bavaria,  June  2,  1862;  and  Baden,  August  17,  1865.  The 
further  development  of  meat  inspection,  which  in  North  Germany 
was  based  on  the  Prussian  abattoir  laws  of  March  18,  1868,  belongs 
to  modern  times.  For  the  development  of  meat  hygiene  in  other 
European  states,  handbooks  on  meat  inspection  as  well  as  special 
historical  works  should  be  referred  to. 

[The  history  of  meat  inspection  in  the  United  States  is  practically 
the  history  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.  While  there 
were  forms  of  municipal  meat  inspection  carried  out  in  several  cities 
previous  to  the  organization  of  this  Bureau,  the  inspection  was  not 
established  on  a  scientific  basis  until  the  inauguration  of  the  Federal 
meat-inspection  service.  The  reasons  for  commencing  this  work  were 
as  follows: 

The  foreign  sales  of  the  meat-packing  industry  from  the  first  included 
numerous  varieties  of  meats  and  meat  products,  and  by  1879  the 
export  trade  in  American  bacon  alone,  without  mentioning  other  food- 
stuffs, had  become  well  established,  when  the  continental  countries 
became  alarmed,  seemingly  on  account  of  the  presence  of  trichina  in 
American  hog  products,  and  accordingly  prohibitive  measures  against 
these  meats  were  instituted.  Italy  was  the  first  to  promulgate  these 
restrictions,  and  by  1881,  Austria,  Germany,  and  France  had  likewise 
prohibited  the  importation  of  American  pork  or  its  products.  American 
cattle  met  a  similar  rebuff  at  the  instance  of  Great  Britain  in  1882, 
when  regulations,  commonly  called  the  "Slaughter  Order,"  were 
instituted  by  the  Order-in-Council  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  which 
compelled  American  cattle  to  be  slaughtered  at  the  port  of  entry. 
This  prohibition  of  store  cattle  was  caused,  presumably,  by  the  presence 
of  contagious  pleuropneumonia  among  the  cattle  in  a  few  of  the  Eastern 
States  and  Illinois.  Although  this  disease  was  effectually  eradicated 
from  this  country  in  1892,  and  although  not  a  single  case  has  been 
found  either  in  cattle  imported  into  Great  Britain  from  the  United 
States  or  among  our  herds  since  that  date,  the  restrictive  measures 
continue  to  be  enforced,  and  the  stigma  constituting  the  assumed 
reason  for  this  embargo  remains.  It  is  plainly  evident  to  anyone 
who  has  given  this  subject  the  least  consideration  that  these  two 
alleged  sanitary  procedures  of  foreign  governments  were  directly  pointed 
at  the  meat  and  live-stock  industry  of  this  country.  Although  they 
caused  a  vast  falling  off  in  the  value  of  exports  in  these  lines,  and-  were 
to  those  variously  engaged  a  hardship  which  continued  for  a  decade, 
nevertheless,  these  interdictions  must  be  considered  as  the  potent 


HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE  363 

and  exciting  factors  in  securing  legislation  for  the  scientific  inspection 
of  meats  for  foreign  and  domestic  use,  and  incidentally  in  advancing 
the  cause  of  veterinary  science  in  the  United  States. 

The  exclusion  of  American  pork  products  finally  became  intoler- 
able, and  in  order  to  relieve  the  situation  and  regain  an  export  market 
for  these  foodstuffs,  Congress  passed  the  act  of  August  30,  1890,  pro- 
viding for  the  inspection  of  salted  pork  and  bacon.  It  was  but  natural 
to  presume  that  with  the  passage  of  such  a  law  providing  for  the  certifi- 
cation of  the  pure  and  healthful  character  of  American  meats  all 
restrictive  measures  against  our  export  trade  would  be  revoked.  How- 
ever, this  initial  act  was  not  sufficiently  comprehensive,  referring  chiefly 
to  the  manner  in  which  the  products  were  packed  and  their  appearance 
immediately  before  shipment,  without  taking  into  consideration 
the  condition  of  the  animals  producing  these  meats  at  the  time  of 
slaughter.  For  this  reason  the  European  countries  failed  to  abolish 
their  restrictions  against  American  pork.  The  relief  expected  in  con- 
sequence of  this  act  was  not,  therefore,  realized,  and  on  March  3, 
1891,  Congress,  recognizing  the  importance  of  protecting  and  fostering 
this  export  industry,  the  value  of  which  had  reached  the  sum  of 
$104,660,000  in  1881,  and  of  acquiring  ancl  maintaining  a  pure  and 
wholesome  meat  supply  for  our  own  people,  passed  a  more  effective 
act.  This  legislation  authorized  the  issuance  of  regulations  providing 
for  the  antemortem  and  postmortem  examination  of  all  cattle,  sheep, 
and  hogs  intended  for  export  and  interstate  commerce,  especially 
providing  for  postmortem  inspection  of  cattle  the  meat  of  which  is 
designated  for  export;  for  a  microscopic  examination  of  all  hogs  for 
export  in  order  that  certificates  could  be  issued  setting  forth  their 
freedom  from  trichinosis;  the  condemnation  of  all  diseased  animals; 
the  marking  or  stamping  of  all  inspected  carcasses  and  the  labeling 
of  food  products  made  from  such  carcasses  intended  for  export  or 
interstate  traffic. 

The  work  connected  with  the  endorsement  of  this  act  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  which  had  been 
established  in  1884  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  information  concern- 
ing the  nature,  cause,  treatment,  and  prevention  of  diseases  of  animals 
and  the  publication  of  the  best  measures  for  the  prevention  and  eradica- 
tion of  such  diseases.  These  increased  duties  rendered  it  desirable 
that  the  various  lines  of  work  be  divided,  and  accordingly  on  April  1, 
1891,  the  Bureau  was  organized  into  several  divisions,  one  of  which 
was  designated  the  Meat  Inspection  Division,  and,  as  its  name  implies, 
had,  among  other  duties,  special  supervision  of  the  inspection  of  meats 
for  export  and  interstate  commerce.  Regulations  were  immediately 
adopted  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  into  effect  this  act  of  Congress. 
A  system  of  inspection  was  devised,  a  force  of  veterinarians  and  their 
assistants  organized,  and  the  inspection  of  meats  inaugurated  within 
ten  weeks  after  the  passage  of  the  act,  or  on  May  12,  1891,  at  the 
abattoir  of  Eastman  &  Co.,  of  New  York  City.  Other  abattoirs  made 
application  for  inspection,  and  by  the  end  of  the  first  complete  fiscal 


364  HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE 

year  (1892)  inspection  had  been  granted  to  twenty-eight  abattoirs  in 
twelve  different  cities. 

It  will  thus  be  observed  that  Federal  meat  inspection  has  only  a 
very  recent  history,  but  one  of  which  our  people  and  our  profession 
can  justly  be  proud. 

The  microscopic  examination  of  pork  for  trichina  was  first  estab- 
lished in  Chicago,  June  22,  1891,  and  likewise  begun  in  other  cities 
before  the  end  of  that  year.  At  first  there  was  some  hesitancy  and 
skepticism  among  the  packers  as  to  the  practical  application  of  this 
microscopic  examination  without  seriously  retarding  the  business  of 
the  firms  and  causing  vexatious  and  unnecessary  delays,  but  all  doubts 
were  shortly  dispelled  by  the  satisfactory  performance  of  the  work, 
and  the  problem  was  efficiently  solved  by  the  persistence  and  skill 
of  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  and  the  growing  per- 
ception and  ripening  knowledge  of  his  assistants.  As  a  direct  result  of 
these  microscopic  examinations  of  pork  products,  which  were  subjected 
to  the  keenest  scrutiny  of  the  attaches  of  European  countries  and 
favorably  reported  upon  by  them,  the  decree  of  September  3,  1891, 
was  made  by  the  German  government  after  the  Saratoga  Convention 
which  readmitted  American  pork  that  was  officially  certified  as  having 
been  microscopically  examined  before  shipment  from  the  United  States. 

Subsequently  similar  interdictions  were  removed  by  Italy,  France, 
Denmark,  and  Austria,  and  in  consequence  of  this  re-established 
confidence  relative  to  the  healthfulness  and  purity  of  the  pork  products 
of  this  country,  the  export  trade  began  at  once  to  show  decided  and 
gratifying  increase,  and  gradually  to  expand  and  regain  its  former 
importance  and  value. 

The  beneficial  and  desirable  results  that  would  necessarily  accrue  in 
consequence  of  having  the  supervision  and  inspection  of  the  Govern- 
ment meat  inspectors  to  certify  to  the  purity  and  soundness  of  the 
products  of  their  abattoirs,  soon  appealed  to  and  was  quickly  acted 
upon  not  only  by  the  packers  who  sought  to  compete  in  foreign  markets, 
but  those  doing  strictly  a  local  and  interstate  business.  The  pro- 
prietors of  those  abattoirs  desiring  inspection  for  their  meat  products 
are  required  to  make  written  application  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
stating  the  kind  and  number  of  animals  slaughtered  and  the  destina- 
tion of  the  products  thereof,  and  to  agree  to  such  supervision  of  their 
business  as  may  be  demanded  by  the  regulations  of  the  Bureau.  On 
conforming  to  such  requirements  the  packing  house  is  given  a  serial 
number  by  which  it  and  the  products  thereof  are  thereafter  known, 
and  an  inspector  is  placed  in  charge  of  the  plant  and  furnished  with 
a  sufficient  number  of  veterinary  inspectors  and  inspector  assistants 
to  carry  out  the  required  inspection. 

The  extension  of  the  work  caused  by  the  enforcement  of  the  act  of 
Congress  cannot  be  fully  appreciated  or  comprehended  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  importance  and  magnitude  of  the  subject.  The 
successful  and  speedy  elaboration  of  many  details  which  necessarily 
required  much  labor  and  consideration  and  the  care  and  efficiency 


HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE  365 

with  which  they  were  immediately  enforced  exceeded  all  expectations 
when  the  difficulties  and  obstacles — the  inherent  perplexities  of  the 
question — were  considered.  Moreover,  this  inspection  was  an  innova- 
tion in  sanitation  in  this  country,  and  was  of  necessity  carried  out 
principally  by  inexperienced  men  who  were  chosen  chiefly  on  the 
strength  of  their  political  influence  rather  than  by  the  breadth  of  their 
veterinary  knowledge. 

The  next  epoch  in  the  history  of  meat  inspection  is  marked  by  the 
placing  of  all  employees  of  the  Bureau  into  the  classified  service  by 
Presidential  order.  This  took  effect  July  1,  1894,  since  which  time 
all  appointments  to  the  force  have  been  made  only  after  the  applicant 
has  passed  a  rigid  and  highly  satisfactorily  examination.  By  this 
means  only  the  intelligent,  competent,  and  superior  candidates  are 
chosen  from  the  eligible  list  by  certification  from  the  U.  S.  Civil  Service 
Commission.  Now  that  the  merit  system  is  in  vogue,  not  only  the 
personnel  of  the  Bureau  has  been  improved,  as  would  be  expected, 
but  the  harmony  and  discipline  resulting  therefrom  is  vastly  better 
than  is  possible  where  political  intrigue  forms  a  basis  of  appointment, 
promotion,  and  retention.  The  first  requisite  to  be  met  by  those  aspir- 
ing to  .the  position  of  veterinary  inspector  is  to  be  a  graduate  of  a 
recognized  and  reputable  veterinary  college,  and  then  to  pass  a  rigid 
examination  that  destroys  the  ambition  of  a  large  percentage  of  appli- 
cants. After  successfully  meeting  these  requirements  and  receiving 
an  appointment,  his  future  service  depends  entirely  upon  the  personal 
equation,  and  would  include  the  ability,  integrity,  and  discretion  with 
which  his  onerous  and  multiple  duties  are  performed. 

Previous  to  1894  the  inspection  consisted  principally  in  the  examina- 
tion of  beef  for  export  and  the  microscopic  examination  of  pork  destined 
for  continental  Europe;  but  at  this  time,  owing  to  an  increased  demand 
for  official  inspection  of  meats,  a  similar  antemortem  and  postmortem 
examination  was  extended  to  hogs,  as  had  already  been  in  operation 
from  the  beginning  with  cattle.  In  the  following  year  calves  and 
sheep  were  likewise  subjected  to  inspection  both  before  and  after 
slaughter.  As  the  inspection  gradually  increased  and  covered  a  large 
number  of  animals,  it  became  more  and  more  important  to  obtain 
sufficient  authority  from  Congress  to  dispose  of  the  condemned  car- 
casses, as  the  original  act  failed  to  grant  power  for  the  proper  disposal 
of  such  products.  The  danger  of  allowing  condemned  meats  to  remain 
undestroyed  is  palpable  when  taken  into  consideration  with  the  limited 
authority  of  the  Federal  Government  regarding  the  use  of  such  car- 
casses within  the  State.  That  it  was  highly  unsatisfactory  to  the 
Bureau,  as  well  as  to  the  health  of  our  people,  to  permit  the  packer 
to  have  absolute  control  over  the  final  disposal  of  unwholesome  meats, 
was  readily  appreciated,  especially  in  view  of  the  dearth  of  State  and 
municipal  sanitary  authorities  vested  with  the  power  for  properly 
disposing  of  those  products.  Consequently,  Congress,  by  the  enact- 
ment of  March  2, 1 S95,  granted  full  power  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
to  adopt  such  rules  and  regulations  as  would  be  necessary  to  prevent 


366  HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE 

the  use  of  condemned  carcasses  for  export  or  interstate  traffic,  making 
it  a  misdemeanor  punishable  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $1000  or  imprison- 
ment, in  the  discretion  of  the  court.  The  work  was  rapidly  advancing 
as  the  inspectors  became  more  thoroughly  trained  and  experienced. 
New  problems  and  duties  were  taken  up  as  fast  as  the  previous  ones 
had  been  elucidated  and  controlled,  and  the  progress  made  was  highly 
gratifying.  In  keeping  with  this  policy  of  steady  conservative  progress, 
the  service  was  extended  in  1895  by  new  legislation  to  include  the 
interstate  cattle  inspection,  and  by  1897  not  only  all  the  beef  and  the 
greater  part  of  pork  and  other  meat  products  exported  to  Europe, 
but  a  large  amount  of  meat  intended  for  interstate  commerce  was 
inspected  in  accordance  with  the  law. 

Although  the  legislation  of  neither  1891  nor  1895  mentioned  sanita- 
tion, the  Department  in  February,  1906,  issued  a  sanitary  regulation 
demanding  the  installation  of  toilet  rooms  for  the  employees  of  the  vari- 
ous packing  houses  and  insisting  on  cleanliness  in  all  official  abattoirs. 
Considerable  progress  was  being  made  along  these  lines  when  the 
agitation  of  1906  drew  attention  to  the  unsatisfactory  conditions 
relating  principally  to  canned  and  prepared  meats,  the  use  of  preserva- 
tives, and  the  unsanitary  condition  and  methods  of  the  packing  estab- 
lishments, although  the  Department  at  that  time  had  no  control  over 
such  matters  under  the  law.  These  defects  of  the  law  under  which 
inspection  was  being  conducted  had  been  realized  and  unsuccessful 
efforts  had  been  made  by  the  Department  to  improve  the  efficiency 
of  the  service  by  new  legislation  and  increased  appropriations,  but 
it  required  the  agitation  of  a  sensational  press  to  direct  public  attention 
to  the  inadequacy  and  defects  of  the  law,  which  finally  resulted  in 
the  adoption  of  the  meat-inspection  act  of  June  30,  1906.1 

This  act  provides  that  all  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  hogs  shall  be 
subject  to  antemortem  examinations  when  the  meat  thereof  is  to  be 
used  in  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  and  such  animals  as  are  rejected 
must  be  slaughtered  subject  to  postmortem  inspection.  It  further 
provides  for  the  postmortem  inspection  of  all  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  and 
goats,  the  products  of  which  are  intended  for  interstate  and  foreign 
trade.  Those  found  fit  for  human  food  are  marked  "IT.  S.  Inspected 
and  Passed,"  and  those  carcasses  found  diseased  or  otherwise  unfit 
for  food  are  marked  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Condemned,"  and  all  such 
condemned  meats  are  destroyed  in  the  presence  of  a  Government 
inspector.  All  meats  which  are  marked  "U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed" 
may  be  reinspected  at  any  subsequent  time,  and  if  they  have  become 
tainted,  unclean,  or  otherwise  unfit  for  food  they  must  be  destroyed. 
In  order  that  the  slaughtering  establishments  may  be  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  Government  at  all  times,  it  is  provided  that  the  employees 
of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  shall  have  access  to  all  portions  of 
the  plant  day  and  night,  whether  it  is  in  operation  or  not.  Further- 
more, power  is  granted  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  destroy  all 

1  This  law  is  reproduced  on  page  137. 


HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE  367 

food  products  containing  dyes,  chemicals,  or  ingredients  which  render 
the  meat  unfit  for  food.  All  food  products  handled  in  any  official 
establishment  must  be  under  the  supervision  of  an  inspector  during 
their  preparation  for  preserving  in  cans,  tins,  pots,  or  other  receptacles. 
These  containers  shall  then  bear  a  label  that  the  contents  have  been 
inspected  and  passed.  Nor  are  these  food  products  allowed  to  be 
sold  under  any  false  or  deceptive  name.  The  Government  is  also 
empowered  to  have  experts  in  sanitation  to  make  inspection  of  all 
establishments,  and  to  prescribe  regulations  of  sanitation  to  be  main- 
tained, and  when  the  sanitary  conditions  are  not  satisfactory  the 
meat  of  such  an  establishment  cannot  enter  interstate  commerce. 
This  act  further  provides  that  on  and  after  October  1,  1906,  no  carrier 
shall  transport  or  receive  for  transportation  any  carcasses,  meat, 
or  meat-food  products  which  have  not  been  inspected  and  marked 
"U.  S.  Inspected  and  Passed,"  and  any  person  or  firm  violating  any 
of  its  provisions  may  be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $10,000  or 
imprisonment  not  longer  than  two  years,  or  by  both  such  fine  and 
imprisonment.  For  the  enforcement  of  this  law  a  permanent  yearly 
appropriation  of  $3,000,000  is  made.  When  it  is  considered  that 
heretofore  the  yearly  appropriations  for  meat  inspection  have  always 
been  less  than  requested  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  that  in 
the  years  of  the  largest  appropriations  they  averaged  a  little  over 
$800,000,  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  that  a  great  advance  has  been 
made,  not  only  in  securing  a  rational  and  eminently  satisfactory  law 
on  meat  inspection,  but  also  an  appropriation  which  will  permit  of 
its  efficient  and  continued  enforcement.  It  can  no  longer  be  said, 
as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  that  we  are  more  particular  in  protecting 
the  people  of  Europe  than  our  own  citizens. 

Meat  inspection  in  Canada  is  only  of  recent  origin.  There  was 
no  government  control  maintained  in  Canada  in  connection  with 
meat-food  products  until  the  necessity  for  such  action  was  brought 
to  the  attention  of  the  people  through  the  meat-inspection  agitation 
in  the  United  States.  Then  the  Parliamentary  authorities  passed  a 
meat-inspection  bill  in  September,  1907,  which  provides  for  a  compe- 
tent meat-inspection  service,  not  alone  for  the  increasing  export  of 
meat  and  meat-food  products,  but  likewise  for  the  control  of  the  meat 
supply  destined  for  home  consumption. 

Accordingly,  in  order  to  provide  a  sufficient  number  of  well-trained 
veterinary  inspectors  for  this  work,  arrangements  were  made  through 
the  Veterinary  Director  General  for  a  special  course  of  instruction 
in  meat  inspection  in  one  of  the  veterinary  colleges  of  the  United 
States,  located  near  a  large  packing  centre.  Thus  the  Canadian  veteri- 
narians were  admitted  daily  to  the  large  abattoirs  and  were  paired  with 
the  inspectors  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  in  order  to  acquire 
a  most  valuable  practical  knowledge  of  the  duties  required  by  the 
Canadian  government.  At  the  same  time  a  full  course  of  lectures 
was  given  to  the  students  on  the  scientific  aspect  of  meat  inspec- 
tion. 


368  HISTORY  OF  MEAT  HYGIENE 

The  requirements  for  the  appointment  as  veterinary  inspector  in 
Canada  are  practically  the  same  as  in  the  United  States.  Graduates 
of  recognized  veterinary  colleges  are  required  to  pass  a  special  examina- 
tion on  veterinary  branches. 

The  regulations  governing  meat  inspection  in  Canada  follow  the 
same  lines  as  those  in  force  at  the  present  time  in  the  United  States. 
They  provide  for  an  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection  of  all 
food  animals  slaughtered  in  an  establishment  where  government 
inspection  is  maintained  as  well  as  strict  sanitation  of  those  establish- 
ments. The  principles  in  the  judgment  of  carcasses  are  also  similar  to 
those  adopted  in  the  United  States  meat-inspection  regulations.] 


CHAPTER    XIII 
ABATTOIRS  AND   STOCKYARDS 

THE  supply  of  meat  constitutes  for  all  communities,  especially  for 
large  cities,  a  factor  of  pronounced  economic  and  hygienic  importance. 
This  meat  supply  is  being  obtained  in  more  and  more  abundance  from 
certain  central  places,  in  which  the  largest  quantity  of  meat,  the  so- 
called  dressed  meat,  is  sold.  Such  central  places  are  the  public  abattoirs 
(slaughter  houses),  which  at  the  same  time  form  the  principal  and 
central  points  for  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspection  described  in 
this  book.  For  a  more  accurate  study  of  the  questions  and  conditions 
to  be  considered  in  the  building  and  equipment  of  public  abattoirs, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  special  literature  on  that  subject.1 

As  the  larger  abattoirs  are  frequently  connected  with  stockyards, 
these  stockvards  must  also  be  mentioned. 


ABATTOIRS 

Abattoirs  are  establishments  which  serve  for  slaughter  of  such 
animals  whose  meat  is  utilized  as  food  for  human  beings.  Further, 
the  meat  is  roughly  prepared  there  for  the  market,  is  stored  in  the 
various  departments,  and  frequently  the  so-called  offal  is  worked  up 
or  is  given  preliminary  treatment  and  removed,  if  further  utilization 
cannot  be  accomplished.  As  the  use  of  the  abattoirs  is  open  to  every 
one,  they  are  designated  in  general  as  public  abattoirs,  in  which  the 
slaughter  of  all  animals  is  compulsory.  The  inhabitants  of  a  locality  are 
compelled  to  carry  out  the  contemplated  slaughter  of  animals  of  certain 
species  exclusively  in  public  abattoirs,  provided  accidental  or  emergency 
cases  do  not  exceptionally  require  immediate  emergency  slaughter 
of  an  animal  at  some  other  place.  With  the  introduction  of  compul- 
sory slaughter  further  use  of  all  private  slaughtering  places  which 
may  exist  in  the  locality  is  accordingly  prohibited. 

The  construction  and  use  of  public  abattoirs  is  regulated  by  law 
in  many  of  the  municipalities  of  Europe. 

Thus,  for  instance,  the  law  applying  to  abattoirs  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Saxony  has  the  following  wording: 

1  Among  others,  Schwarz,  Building  Equipment  and  Operation  of  Public  Abattoirs  and  Stockyards, 
Berlin,  1898;  Schwarz,  Machine  Technique  for  the  Operation  of  Abattoirs,  Berlin,  1901;  Osthoff, 
Abattoirs  and  Stockyards;  newly  adapted  by  Dr.  M.  Fischer,  Professor  of  the  University  of  Hall, 
a.  s.,  2d  edition,  Leipzig,  1903. 

24 


370  ABATTOIRS  AND  STOCKYARDS 

Law  Concerning  the  Public  Abattoirs,  of  July  11,  1876 

1.  In  localities  in  which  public  abattoirs  are  present  in  sufficient  numbers, 
or  such  that  are  to  be  established  by  local  statutes,  there  may  be  prohibited — 

(a)  The  establishment  of  new  private  slaughtering  places  as  well  as 

(b)  A  further  use  of  existing  private  slaughtering  places.    All  such  statutory 

?  revisions  to  be  made  effective,  require  the  approval  of  the  Minister  of  the 
nterior. 

2.  Inasmuch  as  the  owners  of  private  slaughtering  places  are  entitled  to 
indemnities  in  cases  of  certain  diseases,  the  latter  should  be  granted  by  the 
community. 

3.  The  Department  of  the  Interior  is  authorized  to  suspend  in  whole  or  in 
part  the  statutory  provisions  enacted  in  accordance  with  law  if  the  provisions 
given  in  the  introductory  remarks  are  no  longer  present,  and  if  the  community 
does  not  remedy  the  existing  deficiency  within  a  given  time;  if  such  conditions 
apply  to  a  city  community  with  city  regulations,  a  hearing  should  be  given 
before  the  District  Commissioners;  in  all  other  cases,  a  hearing  before  the 
County  Commissioners  should  be  taken. 

Location  of  the  Abattoir. — In  selecting  a  location  for  an  abattoir 
it  should  be  considered  that  the  building  should:  (1)  Be  located  out- 
side the  city,  and  that  there  should  be  no  indication  of  it  being  soon 
surrounded  by  other  buildings;  (2)  be  easy  of  access  from  all  points 
of  the  city  by  good  roads;  (3)  be  easily  connected  by  a  side  track  with 
the  existing  railroad  line;  (4)  have  underground  drainage  for  the  waste 
water  without  coming  in  contact  with  the  built-up  section  of  the  city, 
and  this  drainage*  should  be  executed  in  such  a  way  that  it  empties 
below  the  city  into  a  water  drain,  or  into  a  constructed  waste-water 
cleaning  plant;  (5)  have  a  sufficient  water  supply  to  cover  the  great 
demand  of  wash  water  which  is  required  in  abattoirs,  and  (6)  be  of 
such  sufficient  size  that  an  extension  of  the  plant  at  that  location 
should  be  assured  for  at  least  thirty  years. 

Entire  Establishment. — The  location  of  the  various  buildings  and 
rooms  of  an  abattoir  is,  in  general,  according  to  one  of  three  systems. 

German  System. — The  German  arrangement  of  the  buildings  (Fig. 
150)  aims  to  make  the  plant  appear  as  closed  as  possible.  Therefore, 
the  most -important  operating  rooms  are  either  united  in  a  single  build- 
ing under  one  roof,  or  most  of  the  buildings  are  connected  by  roofed 
connecting  passages,  in  such  a  way  that  larger  open  courts  are  not 
present  between  the  various  buildings. 

The  advantages  of  the  German  arrangement  of  buildings  lie  in  the 
smaller  requirement  of  space,  lower  buildings,  and  operating  expenses; 
good  facilities  for  surveying  and  supervising,  convenient  connections 
of  the  working  establishments,  and  consequently  saving  of  time  in 
slaughter  and  an  easy  control  of  the  butcher  helpers  by  the  foremen, 
as  well  as  protection  against  draught,  rain,  snow,  and  cold,  wrhich 
such  a  closed  plant  affords  to  a  greater  advantage  than  an  open  estab- 
lishment. A  prominent  disadvantage  of  the  German  system  is  the 
difficulty  for  extensions,  which,  however,  may  be  avoided  by  correct 
measurement  of  the  requirements  of  space,  and  commodious  arrange- 
ments of  the  principal  operating  rooms.  On  account  of  the  latter 


ABATTOIRS 


371 


conditions,  the  German  arrangement  of  buildings  is  not  adapted  for 
abattoirs  of  larger  cities;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  possesses  great 
advantages  without  doubt  for  abattoirs  of  small  or  medium  size,  as 
compared  with  the  French  system;  and  above  all,  it  is  also  more  suitable 
for  climatic  conditions  of  most  parts  of  Germany. 


FIG.  150 


Restaurant  Rlda.  Administration  Blag. 


4 1  ffffti. 


<?.<?.*>*.*  ,9 


Ground  plan  of  an  abattoir  (Tilsit)  with  German  arrangement  of  the  buildings. 

French  System. — In  the  French  arrangement  of  buildings,  there 
are  open  courts  or  streets  between  the  various  buildings,  the  grouping 
of  which  is  arranged  according  to  their  operation;  thus  the  closed 
appearance  of  the  German  system  is  absent. 

The  advantages  of  the  French  system  lie,  above  all,  in  the  easy 
possibility  of  extension  of  every  part  of  the  plant;  its  disadvantages 
are  brought  out  by  the  advantages  of  the  German  arrangements. 
Large  abattoir  plants  can  be  practically  constructed  only  after  the 
French  system,  or  by  the  combination  system  next  to  be  described. 


372 


ABATTOIRS  AND  STOCKYARDS 


The  original  characteristic  slaughter-cell  arrangement  of  the  French  system, 
into  which  every  abattoir  was  divided,  must  now  be  considered  as  a  condition 
that  belongs  to  the  past. 

Combination  System.- — By  a  combination  system  for  abattoir  plants 
(Fig.  151)  is  meant  a  system  of  building  in  which  the  principal  operating 
buildings  are  arranged  according  to  the  French  system,  and  connected 
by  roofed  passages  or  connecting  halls.  This  system  has  been  adopted 


FIG.  151 


Stock  yards 
Abattoir 
Administration 
Sanitary  abattoir 
Abattoir  for  horses 
Stables 


Ground  plan  of   an  abattoir  and   stockyards,  in  which   the   first   is   arranged  in  accordance  with  the 

combination  system 

more  and  more  extensively  during  the  last  few  years.  The  connecting 
halls  between  the  various  killing  houses  on  one  side  and  the  cooling 
house  on  the  other,  makes  possible  not  only  the  transportation  of  meat 
without  exposure  to  the  changes  of  weather,  but  they  also  serve  as 
a  place  for  keeping  the  utensils  of  the  butchers,  for  whom  the  roofing 
serves  to  an  advantage,  just  the  same  as  to  the  butchers,  dealers,  officials, 
and  other  visitors  to  the  abattoir,  who  frequent  the  corresponding 
buildings.  Similarly  roofed  connecting  passages  are  also  established 


ABATTOIRS  373 

between  the  killing  halls  on  one  side  and  the  tripe  house  and  manure 
house  on  the  other. 

The  advantages  of  such  building  arrangements  become  apparent 
from  the  description.  Disadvantages  may  be  present  when  the  cor- 
responding buildings  do  not  front  the  connecting  passageway,  but 
border  the  same  with  long  surfaces  of  wall,  thereby  affecting  slaughter 
halls,  etc. 

In  the  central  plant  of  a  large  abattoir  which  is  connected  with  stockyards, 
the  following  principal  parts  should  be  considered:  (a)  Stockyards  with 
special  quarantine  pens;  (6)  abattoir  with  accessory  buildings;  (c)  official 
and  plague  abattoir;  (d)  horse  and  dog  abattoir;  (e)  office  building;  (/)  living 
quarters;  (g)  vaccine  establishment  (for  preparing  lymph  against  smallpox); 
(h)  railroad  tracks  and  station  for  disposition  of  railroad  cars;  (i)  provision 
for  sewers  and  clearing  plant  for  waste  water;  (k)  water-supplying  plant;  (I) 
lighting  plant,  and  (m)  streets  and  places  with  roofed  wagon  stands. 

[There  is  no  special  system  followed  in  the  construction  of  abattoirs  in  the 
United  States.  However,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  require- 
ments of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  all  abattoirs  where  meat 
inspection  is  maintained  must  be  arranged  and  constructed  in  accordance 
with  the  sanitary  requirements.  The  plans  for  construction  of  new  buildings 
or  any  contemplated  changes  must  be  submitted  to  the  Department  for 
approval.] 

Buildings  and  Rooms. — The  necessary  buildings  and  rooms  of  every 
abattoir,  with  their  purposes  and  principal  equipments,  are  indicated 
in  the  following: 

Killing  Houses. — In  the  killing  houses,  the  animals  are  slaughtered, 
skinned,  or  the  hair  is  removed,  eviscerated,  and  inspected;  also  fre- 
quently they  remain  there  hanging  to  cool  out.  While  in  small  abattoirs, 
a  single  room  may  serve  for  slaughtering  all  species  of  food  animals, 
in  medium-sized  abattoirs,  cattle  and  small  stock  are  slaughtered 
together,  while  only  hogs  are  butchered  in  a  special  room.  In  large 
abattoirs,  special  slaughtering  rooms  must  be  provided  for  cattle,  small 
stock,  and  hogs. 

The  slaughtering  of  horses  requires  an  individual  killing  house, 
separated  from  the  others;  in  this,  the  slaughtering  of  dogs  may  also 
be  carried  out.  In  the  same  way  a  special  killing  house  must  be  pro- 
vided for  the  slaughter  of  sick  animals. 

The  general  equipment  of  the  abattoirs  should  meet  the  following 
requirements:  As  much  light  as  possible;  hard,  impenetrable  floors; 
good  drainage  for  the  wrater  used  in  washing,  through  open  shallow 
gutters;  smooth  walls  which  must  be  easily  washed  to  a  height  of  2 
meters  from  the  floor;  a  plentiful  supply  of  cold  and  hot  water;  abundant 
ventilation,  and  according  to  judgment  also  slight  heating  in  winter. 

In  killing  houses  for  large  stock,  windlasses  are  found  particularly 
necessary  for  hoisting  both  cattle  and  horses.  These  hoisters  are 
termed  stationary  when  the  slaughtered  animal  is  left  to  hang  on  them 
until  cool,  and  movable  when  special  equipments  are  provided  for 
cooling  the  carcass,  and  the  windlass  serves  only  for  hoisting  and  trans- 


374  ABATTOIRS.  AND  STOCKYARDS 

porting  the  slaughtered  animal  to  the  hanging  floor.  The  latter,  as 
a  rule,  is  connected  with  coolers  by  rails  and  a  proper  transporting 
equipment  in  such  a  way  that  the  undivided  hanging  sides  of  large 
stock  may  be  conveyed  to  the  coolers  without  exertion. 

Killing  houses  for  small  stock  contain  hook  frames  built  into  them 
for  hanging  thereon  skinned  calves  and  sheep  and  their  viscera.  These 
animals  are  slaughtered  on  trestles. 

Lately,  special  slaughter  trestles  have  also  come  into  use.  They 
are  fastened  to  the  floor  and  may  be  raised  in  such  a  way  that  they 
also  serve  at  the  same  time  for  hanging  arrangements.  Hook  frames 
are  thus  made  superfluous. 

The  killing  houses  for  hogs  are  distinguished  by  the  sticking  and 
scalding  rooms,  as  well  as  by  the  dressing  room.  In  the  former  are 
present  the  striking  and  sticking  sheds;  also  hot-water  vats,  in  which 
the  stuck  hogs  are  scalded  to  facilitate  removal  of  the  hair.  Some 
times  the  hair  is  removed  on  special  tables  in  this  room;  however, 
the  scraping  is  frequently  executed  in  the  room  in  which  the  carcass 
is  dressed.  The  dressing  room  contains  hooks  on  frames  or  rails  for 
hanging  and  eviscerating  hogs  after  the  hair  has  been  removed;  also 
hanging  arrangements  and  tables  for  the  viscera  and  other  parts. 

For  the  conveyance  of  hogs  from  the  scalding  vat  to  the  scraping 
table  and  from  there  to  the  hanging  floor  and  chill  room,  very  ingenious 
arrangements  are  frequently  installed,  which  save  human  strength  as 
much  as  possible.  One  of  the  latest  of  these  devices,  which  has  widely 
attracted  the  attention  of  abattoir  constructors,  is  a  patented  gliding- 
rail  system,  with  traversable  spreaders,  constructed  by  the  firm  of 
Kreiser  &  Co.,  in  Kassel. 

In  connection  with  hog-killing  houses  of  large  abattoirs,  trichina- 
inspection  rooms  are  usually  established. 

Tripe  Room. — The  tripe  room  (gut  room)  is  used  for  emptying  and 
cleaning  of  the  gastrointestinal  canal.  In  small  abattoirs  there  is 
only  one  common  room;  in  large  abattoirs,  however,  there  are  separate 
tripe  rooms  for  every  slaughter  house.  The  tripe  rooms  of  cattle 
slaughter  houses  are  usually  connected  with  a  special  manure  house 
for  the  reception  of  the  contents  of  the  stomachs.  The  tripe  rooms 
are  supplied  with  troughs  for  cleaning  stomachs  and  intestines  in  warm 
and  cold  water,  with  vats  for  scalding  certain  parts,  and  with  tables. 

Cooling  Room. — The  equipment  and  operation  of  the  cooling  rooms 
and  coolers,  which  are  today  inseparable  even  in  small  abattoirs,  have 
been  fully  described  on  page  98. 

Stables. — Stables  must  be  present  for  all  species  of  food  animals, 
as  well  as  for  horses  and  draught  dogs,  which  are  employed  in  the 
industrial  traffic  of  abattoirs.  For  the  sick  or  suspicious  stock,  stables 
are  equipped,  apart  from  the  others,  and  they  must  also  be  used  for 
stabling  foreign  food  stock. 

In  the  equipment  of  stables,  the  omission  of  woodwork,  unpercolat- 
ing  and  easily  cleaned  floors  and  wall  surfaces,  good  lighting  and  ventila- 


ABATTOIRS  375 

tion,  sufficient  water  supply,  and  good  drainage  for  the  filthy  water 
are  indispensable. 

Manure  Houses. — The  manure  houses  which  have  given  the  best 
satisfaction  for  the  disposal  of  manure  are  so  equipped  that  they  possess 
elevated  platforms  with  openings  through  which  the  manure  is  poured 
or  thrown  into  closed  iron  manure  cars,  which  are  switched  there.  The 
most  important  factors  are  good  ventilation  and  quickness  in  carrying 
off  the  manure.  In  large  abattoirs  useful  devices  have  lately  been 
installed  for  the  disposal  of  the  manure  and  for  its  further  utili- 
zation. 

Tallow  Factories  for  Rendering  Fat  and  Tallow  Obtained  in  the  Abattoir. 
—Blood-utilizing  plants,  casing  plants,  hide-salting  establishments  and 
hide  houses,  and  plants  for  the  industrial  utilization  of  condemned 
products  are  only  found  in  larger  abattoirs.  An  odorless  plant,  which 
may  vary  greatly,  should  be  required  as  absolutely  necessary. 

Boiler  and  Engine  Houses. — Boiler  and  engine  houses  are  required 
in  order  to  obtain  steam  for  heating  and  operating  purposes,  as  well 
as  for  working  the  engines  for  operating  the  refrigerating  machines, 
electric  dynamos,  pumps,  etc.  The  latter  convey  the  water  into  special 
tanks  placed  at  some  elevation  in  order  to  obtain  a  ready  flow  for  the 
water  supply. 

Disposal  of  Condemned  Meat. — The  establishments  which  are  present 
in  medium-sized  and  larger  abattoirs,  for  the  separate  stabling,  slaugh- 
tering, and  sanitary  and  veterinary  police  disposal  of  diseased  food 
stock  and  those  suspected  of  disease  or  plagues  are  designated  as 
sanitary  institutions  or  police  slaughter  houses.  They  represent  to 
a  certain  extent  a  small  abattoir  within  a  larger  establishment,  and 
are  correspondingly  equipped.  There  are  also  placed,  as  a  rule,  the 
contrivances  for  harmless  disposition  of  condemned  meat  (page  181 
required  by  the  meat-inspection  regulations,  for  rendering  and  steam- 
ing meat  (page  173),  for  rendering  fat  (page  180),  pickling  (page  180), 
and  for  curing  meat,  as  well  as  the  apparatus  and  plants  mentioned 
under  tallow  factories. 

Offices. — In  the  official  building  are  quarters  for  the  general  and 
financial  management  of  the  abattoir  and  for  the  meat  and  trichina 
inspection  should  they  be  not  located  in  the  slaughter  houses  proper; 
wardrobes  for  the  foremen  and  assistants;  the  restaurant,  unless  there 
is  a  special  restaurant  building;  and  living  quarters  for  officials. 

An  inspection  office  for  meat  brought  from  the  outside,  as  well 
as  a  Freibank  salesroom,  may  be  located  in  the  office  building,  if  they 
are  not  placed  in  other  buildings. 

Scale  Houses. — Scale  houses  and  special  quarters  for  gatekeepers 
a  iv  only  necessary  in  medium-sized  and  large  abattoirs. 

Waste-water  Cleaning  Plants. — Waste-water  cleaning  plants,  for 
which  the  most  varied  systems  are  in  existence,  must  be  provided 
for  all  abattoirs  in  view  of  the  great  pollution  of  the  waste  water  of 
abattoirs.  Their  construction  is  principally  underground. 


376  ABATTOIRS  AND  STOCKYARDS 

Management  of  the  Abattoirs. — The  experience  of  many  years 
has  demonstrated  that  the  management  of  abattoirs  must  be  positively 
effected  by  the  community  itself;  it  is  desired  to  avoid  all  numerous 
unpleasant  conditions  and  incidents,  which  were  observed  in  the  man- 
agement of  such  establishments  at  first,  by  receiving  hearty  cooper- 
ation from  private  individuals,  corporations,  and  butchers'  cooperative 
associations.  Competent  veterinarians  have  always  given  the  best 
satisfaction  as  managers  of  abattoirs. 

The  same  state  of  affairs  exists  in  the  erection  of  public  abattoirs 
which  are  to  be  managed  entirely  by  local  administration.  Aside 
from  the  noteworthy  fact  that  in  public  abattoirs  the  police  rights 
of  the  community  are  exercised  to  a  very  great  extent,  it  should  be 
especially  recognized  that  the  public  abattoirs  are  not  only  very  good 
investments  of  capital,  but  that  they  are  continually  proving  to  be  a 
profitable  source  of  income.  They  should,  however,  principally  benefit 
the  community,  and  not  the  private  individual  or  corporation. 

When  an  abattoir  is  privately  owned  and  managed,  the  experts 
assigned  to  the  execution  of  the  antemortem  and  postmortem  inspec- 
tion should  be  permanently  appointed  city  officials,  and  there  should 
be  a  general  official  supervision  of  employees. 

What  is  said  on  page  380  will  apply  also  to  the  supervision  and 
veterinary  police  work  in  abattoirs. 


STOCKYARDS 

Stockyards  which  serve  for  commercial  traffic  in  food  animals  in 
specially  constructed  buildings  are  appropriately  equipped.  They 
are  very  necessary  in  all  cities  in  which  the  supply  of  food  animals 
from  the  immediate  neighborhood  is  insufficient  and  in  which  the 
supply  comes  from  larger  stock-raising  localities.  Stockyards  which 
are  favorably  situated  and  well  attended,  frequently  become  centres 
for  the  animal  commerce  of  large  territories;  and  consequently,  a 
considerable  amount  of  shipping  takes  place  from  such  stockyards. 

As  a  rule,  a  large  proportion  of  the  stock  sold  at  the  stock  markets 

is  slaughtered  at  the  same  place.     Therefore,  it  is  advantageous  to 

'connect  the  stockyards  directly  with  the  abattoirs.     The  advantage 

of  this  is  especially  great  when  an  outbreak  of  contagion  in  the  stock 

markets  calls  for  the  immediate  slaughter  of  affected  stock. 

Location  of  Stockyards. — The  same  factors  come  into  consideration 
in  the  selection  of  a  location  for  the  erection  of  stockyards  as  in  the 
establishment  of  an  abattoir.  An  immediate  track  connection  with 
a  railroad  is  a  natural  necessity,  and  for  these  reasons  the  advantage 
of  its  connection  with  an  abattoir  becomes  apparent.  Accordingly, 
stockyards  and  abattoirs  represent  usually  a  complete  establishment, 
composed  of  two  elements  which  are  dependent  upon  each  other. 
A  distinct  separation  of  the  abattoir  from  the  stockyard  in  such  a 


STOCKYARDS  377 

way  that  the  one  may  be  closed  against  the  other  is  indispensable 
from  a  veterinary  police  standpoint,  and  also  on  the  grounds  of  technical 
management. 

There  are  no  special  systems  for  grouping  stockyard  buildings.  This 
is  rather  influenced  by  the  location  of  the  various  buildings  of  the 
abattoir,  and  especially  by  the  practical  points  of  view.  Parts  of 
stockyards  separated  for  spedial  purposes  are:  Yards  for  animals 
left  over  from  the  market;  quarantine  and  plague  yards,  which,  how- 
ever, in  smaller  stockyards  are  mostly  represented  by  isolated  stables. 

[The  Union  Stockyards  at  Chicago,  111.  (Fig.  152),  in  which  ante- 
mortem  inspection  of  live  stock* is  conducted  by  the  employees  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  contains  500  acres,  about  50  of  which 
are  either  covered  by  buildings  or  used  for  storage  of  manure,  lumber, 
etc.  This  latter  portion,  commonly  known  as  "the  dump,"  is  the 
only  area  which  is  not  paved  or  covered  with  flooring.  Of  the  remain- 
ing 450  acres,  an  area  comprising  a  few  acres — which  includes  the 
pens  that  are  scarcely  ever  in  use — is  floored  with  planking  and  drained 
by  box  sewers.  The  remainder  of  the  cattle  pens,  roadways,  and 
alleys  comprising  the  vast  area  in  daily  use  are  paved  throughout  with 
vitrified  brick  having  a  low  degree  of  water  absorption.  The  drainage 
is  good,  and  the  pens  are  kept  as  clean  as  the  character  of  their  use 
will  permit.] 

Buildings  and  Plants. — The  buildings  and  plants  which  belong  to 
a  well-equipped  stockyard  will  be  briefly  described.  When  a  public 
traffic  is  maintained,  or  food  animals  are  brought,  the  equipment  in 
general  should,  in  the  first  place,  satisfy  the  veteruiary  police  and 
sanitary  requirements  in  relation  to  cleanliness  and  possibility  for 
disinfection  (hard,  impenetrable  floors;  these  should  be  smooth,  easily 
washed  walls;  omission  of  woodwork;  good  arrangements  for  ventila- 
tion; good  light;  abundant  water  supply,  and  good  drainage  for  filthy 
water) . 

Stock  which  is  transported  to  the  stockyards  is  put  up  for  sale  in 
special  market  yards,  as  a  rule,  only  on  certain  market  days.  Whether 
a  special  pen  is  provided  for  every  species  of  food  animal  depends  on 
the  size  of  the  stockyards  and  the  existing  trade  activity. 

At  some  places  calves  are  also  put  up  for  sale  in  the  market  pens 
used  for  cattle,  while  in  others  they  are  sheltered  in  the  market  yard 
used  for  hogs;  and  in  still  other  stockyards  there  are  special  small 
stock-market  pens  for  calves. 

In  the  equipment  of  these  market  yards,  railings  should  be  provided 
in  those  used  for  cattle  for  tying  the  animals;  and  in  the  yards  for 
smaller  stock  divisions  into  smaller  and  larger  pens  are  required  for 
placing  the  animals.  Equipment  for  feeding  stock  in  the  market  yards 
(mangers,  troughs,  racks)  is  not  necessary  in  case  there  is  ample  stable 
room  present,  in  which  stabling  and  feeding  may  take  place  before 
and  after  market. 

Special  emphasis  should  be  laid  from  the  standpoint  of  veterinary 


378 


ABATTOIRS  AND  STOCKYARDS 


STOCKYARDS  379 

police,  upon  good  and  sufficient  stables.  Large  attached  stable  rooms, 
however,  are  unsatisfactory  and  small  stable  divisions  should  be  favored. 

Special  stables  for  horses  are  required  for  the  horses  employed  in 
the  business  of  the  stockyards.  The  stable  loft  serves,  as  a  rule,  as  a 
storage  room  for  feed  and  straw. 

An  exchange  building  with  restaurant  is  only  necessary  in  large 
stockyards.  In  this  building  offices  and  business  rooms  are  also  pro- 
vided for  traders,  stock  commission  men,  animal  insurance  companies, 
stockyard  banks,  etc. 

A  special  office  building  for  the  officials  and  the  management  of 
the  abattoir  is  necessary  in  those  instances  where  the  required  rooms 
cannot  be  obtained  in  the  other  buildings  (exchange  halls). 

The  location  of  railroad  platforms  for  loading  and  unloading  stock 
is  influenced  on  the  one  hand  by  track  connections,  but  on  the  other 
hand,  the  traffic  with  market  stock  is  considerably  facilitated  by  the 
suitable  relation  of  the  stables  to  the  platform.  A  special  platform,  or 
a  separated  part  of  the  general  platform,  must  be  provided  for  the  traffic 
of  quarantined  stock  or  animals  infected  with  a  contagious  disease. 
On  the  platforms  are  holding  and  counting  pens  necessary  for  tempo- 
rary quarantine  of  the  stock,  which  should  serve  also  for  veterinary 
police  purposes.  Small  platforms  for  loading  stock  into  vehicles  are 
suitably  erected  at  various  practical  places  in  the  stockyards. 

A  dung  yard  must  be  provided  when  the  stable  manure  is  not  imme- 
diately loaded  into  cars  from  special  manure  houses  (page  375).  Lately, 
the  attempt  has  been  made  to  compost  the  manure.  By  this  method 
the  vegetable  and  animal  organisms  which  produce  disease  are  rendered 
harmless  through  a  development  of  self-heating  manures  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  process. 

Equipment  for  washing  hogs  (wash  pens,  vats)  and  for  the  preparation 
of  scalded  feed  and  gruels  (gruel  kitchens)  are  usually  established  in 
connection  with  the  respective  stables. 

The  water  supply  (cold  and  warm  water)  of  the  stockyard  is  obtained, 
as  a  rule,  from  the  corresponding  plant  of  the  abattoir. 

A  disinfection  plant  for  railroad  cars,  with  necessary  tracks,  steam, 
and  hot-water  boilers,  hydrants,  etc.,  is  found  only  in  larger  stockyards. 

The  part  of  the  stockyard  used  for  animals  left  over  from  the  market 
is  indispensable  for  large  stockyards  at  a  time  of  danger  from  plague. 
It  represents  a  closed  portion  of  the  stockyard  with  stables  for  all 
species  of  animals  which  were  not  sold,  for  the  time  being,  on  the 
market. 

The  quarantine  or  closed  yards  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  pre- 
viously mentioned,  and  are  used  for  the  accommodation  of  market 
stock  from  foreign  countries  which  is  not  allowed  to  come  in  contact 
with  native  stock.  It  is  more  correct  to  connect  the  quarantine  yards 
directly  with  the  abattoir,  or  to  provide  an  equipment  in  the  yards 
for  slaughtering  animals  placed  in  the  quarantine  pens. 

The  yards  for  animals  with  infectious  diseases  are,  as  a  rule,  con- 


380  ABATTOIRS  AND  STOCKYARDS 

nected  with  the  sanitary  establishment  mentioned  on  page  375,  in 
order  that  the  infected  stock  may  be  slaughtered  there. 

Management  of  Stockyards. — The  management  of  stockyards  is 
the  same  as  that  of  abattoirs  (see  page  376). 

Veterinary  supervision  of  the  stockyards,  as  a  rule,  devolves  upon  the 
competent  state  official  veterinarians,  unless  special  state  veterinarians 
are  employed  for  this  purpose;  or  the  director  of  the  stockyards  is 
authorized  by  the  Government  to  maintain  this  supervision,  assigning 
an  official  veterinarian  to  attend  to  the  duties. 

[In  the  United  States  the  stockyards  which  are  located  in  the  larger 
live-stock  centres  are,  as  a  rule,  controlled  by  private  corporations. 
However,  all  conditions  pertaining  to  their  sanitation  are  under  the 
direct  control  and  supervision  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry.] 


INDEX 


ABATTOIRS,  369 

law  concerning,  370 

performance  of  meat  inspection  in, 

166 

public,  369 
in  Rome,  360 

Abdominal  cavity,  lymph  glands  of,  60 
Abomasum,  diffused  lymphadenia  of,  213 

diphtheritic  inflammation  of,  213 
Abscess,  205 

hypophrenic,  216 
metastatic,  302 
Acarus  mange,  232 

Accidents,  emergency  slaughter  in,    198 
Acetic  acid,  conserving  with,  93,  104 
Acidity  of  fat,  degree  of,  331 
Actinobacillosis  of  cattle,  282 
Actinomycosis,  278 
Advanced  pregnancy,  animals  in,  196 
Age  of  slaughter  of  animals,  33,  192 
Agglutination     test     for     distinguishing 

meat,  77 

in  meat  poisonings,  354 
Aglossa  pinguinalis,  329 
Air-sac  mite,  343 
Albumin,  50 
Albumina,  88,  333,  335 
Albumenoids  of  muscles,  54 
Albumose  in  meat  peptone,  105 
Aldehyde  in  fat,  331 
Allantiasis,  357 
Ambulatory  antemortem  and  postmortem 

inspection,  166 
Ammonia  in  putrefaction  of  meat,  test 

for,  326 
Amphibians,  examination  of,  349 

pecularities  of  meat  of,  77 
Amyloid  degeneration,  203 
Anatomy  of  most  important  viscera,  68 
Anemia,  199,  222 
Angiomatosis  of  liver,  214 
Animal  flour,  185 

transportation  of,  regulation  on,  25 
Anoplocephala,  238 

Antemortem    and    postmortem    inspec- 
tion,  ambulatory,   164 
dues  for,  163 
extraordinary,  167 
organization  of,  143 
performance  of,  169 
procedure  of,  14$ 


Antemortem    and    postmortem    inspec- 
tion, statistics  of,  16  - 
supervision  of,  164 
Anthracosis  of  lungs,  220 
Anthrax,  282 
Aphthous  fever,  290 
Apiosoma  bigemin  m,  261 
Appert's  conserving  method,  93 
Aroma  bacteria,  328 
Ascarides,  237 
Ascaris  capsularia,  349 
Aspergillus,  327 
Atrophy,  201 

brown,  205 

Autodigestion  of  meat,  323 
Auto-infection  with  measles,  250 
Auto-intoxications,  228 
Au^olysis  of  muscles,  323 
Azoturia,  229 


B 


BACILLARY  erysipelas,  304 
Bacillus  anthracis,  282 

botulinus,  357,  358 

bovisepticus,  319 

cellulseformis,  355 

cyanogenus,  328 

enteritidis,  Gartner,  324,  351 

cause  of  meat  poisoning,  351 

gangrsense  emphysematosse,  314,  324 

gastromycosis  ovis,  316 

malleus,  287 

necrophorus,  321 

nodulifacius  bovis,  215 

oedematis  maligni,  296,  324 

paraputrificus,  324 

phosphorescens,  327 

piscicidus  agilis,  349 

prodigiosus,  328 

proteus  as  cause  of  meat  poisonings, 
355 

pseudotuberculosis  ovis,  277 

putrificus,  324 

pyorogenes  suis,  309 

renalis  bovis,  217 

suipestifer,  310 

suisepticus,  308 

tetanus,  295 

tuberculosis,  264 
Bacon,  definition  of,  55 
Bacterial  contents  of  chopped  meat,  86 


382 


INDEX 


Bacteriemia,  298 

Bacteriologic  meat  inspection,  147 

Bacterium  avicidum,  343 

coli,  324 

cause  of  meat  poisonings,   355 
of  sepsis,  298 

lymphaticum  aerogenes,  215 

pestis  astaci,  350 

proteus,  324 
Balbianidse,  261 
Barbel  cholera,  348 
Barmenit,  103 
Beef,  differentiated  from  horse  meat,  81 

measles,  247 

peculiarities  of  meat,  74 
Bile,  utilization  of,  51 
Billy-goats,  odor  of  meat  of,  195 
Binding  quality  of  meat,  87 

substances  in  sausage,  87,  335 
Biological     method     for     distinguishing 

various  kinds  of  meats,  77 
Blackleg,  314 

parturient,  296,  315 
Bladder  worm,  241,  244,  249 
Blastomycosis  of  muscles,  212 
Bleeding,  41 

incomplete,  197 

thorough,  indications  of,  42 
Blood,  50,  58 

aspiration  of,  220 

chemical  composition  of,  58 

poisoning,  ichorous,  297 
purulent,  311 

quantity  of,  in  slaughtered  animals, 
42 

sausage,  88 

vessels,  58 

watery  condition  of,  223 
Bloody  urine,  enzootic,  263 
Blow  fly,  329 
Blue  coloration  of  meat,  328 

of  udder,  331 

Boars,  odor  of  meat  of,  194 
Boat,  transportation  of  food  animals  by, 

Body  lymph  glands,  58,  67 

Boiler  house,  375 

Boiling  of  meat,  90,  93,  175 

test,  149 

Bolt  apparatuses,  38,  39,  40 
hammer,  38 
pistol,  40 
Bone,  57 

as  offal,  51 
marrow,  57 
of  calf,  74 
of  catt'e,  74 
of  goat,  75 
of  hog,  75 
of  sheep,  75 
tissue,  diseases  of,  211 
Bookkeeping  of  inspections,  162 
Bonphilus  species,  261 
Boracic  acid,  conserving  with,  103 

test  for,  337 
Boroglyceride,  103 


Bethriocephalus  latus,  238,  247 

liguloides,  247 
Botriomycosis,  282 
Botulism,  357 
Bradsot,  316 
Branding  stamp,  30,  172 
Breaking  down  processes  in  connective 

tissue,  210 
Brine,  101 
Bromatology,  19 

Bronchopneumonia  of  calves,  314 
Brucin  reaction  (test  for  saltpeter),  337 
Buffalo  meat  distinguished  from  beef,  85 
Bulging  of  cans,  335 
Bull,  characteristics  of  meat  of,  74 

meat,  odor  of,  197 
Bullet-shooting  apparatus,  39 
Burning  of  small  parts  of  carcasses,  191 

stove  after  Kori,  191 
Burying  of  meat,  190 
Butter  refractometer,  339 
Butterine,  106 
Buying  of  food  animals,  21 


CADAVER  bacilli,  285 

Calcareofibrous    nodules  in    lungs,   219, 

289 
Calcification,  205 

multiple,  217 

presternal,  212 
Calf,  age  and  maturity  of,  33 

definition  of,  20 

diarrhea,  322 

diphtheria,  221 

fever,  230 

meat,  inflation  of,  43 

peculiarities  of,  74 

pyemic  polyarthritis,  302 

ruffles  of,  51 

septic  polyarthritis,  300 
Canned  meat,  94,  95 

inspection  of,  335 
poisonous,  358 
Carbolic  odor  of  meat,  331 
Carceag     of     sheep     (parasitic     ictero- 

hematuria),  263 
Carcinomatosis,  206 
Came  pura,  93 
Carnifices,  360 
Caro  porosa,  339 
Cartilage,  58 

diseases  of,  212 
Caseation,  203 
Casings,  159 
Cat,  distinguishing  of  meat  from  rabbit, 

79 

Catarrhal  fever  of  cattle,  malignant,  320 
Caviar,  107 

examination  of,  341 

Central  nervous  system,  diseases  of,  222 
Cerebral  bladder-worm  cyst,  242 
Cerebrospinal  meningitis  of  horses,  222 
Chalicosis  of  lungs,  219 


INDEX 


383 


Chalicosis  nodosa  of  liver,  215 
Charguc  dulce,  93 
Cheiracannthus  hispidus,  237 
Chemical  conserving  methods,  101 

destruction  of  meat,  188 
Chemistry  of  tissues  and  organs,  52 
Chicken  cholera,  343 
diphtheria,  344 
favus,  343 

meat,  appearance  of,  208 
pest,  344 
pox,  343 

tuberculosis,  344 
Chlorine  odor  of  meat,  331 
Cholemia,  228 
Cholera,  dissemination  of,  by  meat,  328 

of  fowls,  343 
Chopped  meat,  86 

bacterial  contents  of,  86 
examination  of,  333 
poisonings,  356 
Circulatory  apparatus,  221 

disturbances,  200 
Clams,  poisonous,  350 
Classification  of  food  animals  for  market 

quotations,  24 
Cloudy  swelling,  201 
Coccidisc  of  intestinal  mucosa,  240 

of  skin,  234 

Coccidium  fuscum,  234,  241 
oviforme,  241 
perforans,  241 
Ccenurus  cerebralis,  242 
Cold,  preserving  meat  by,  96 
slaughtering,  45 
storage  geese,  345 
Coli  bacteria  as  producers  of  sepsis,  398 

in  pyemia,  303 
Collecting  box  for  condemned  meat,  182 

Garth's,  187 

Color  changes  of  udder  in  boiling,  221 
Coloring  of  meat,  88,  333 

substances,  test  for,  334,  340 
Colpitis  follicularis  infectiosa,  218 
Comb  scab  in  fowl,  343 
Comparative  anatomy  of  viscera,  68 
Composition    of    meats    and    meat-food 

products,  55 

Compression  machine,  98 
Compressor  for  trichina  inspection,   163 
Compulsory  slaughter    in    public    abat- 
toirs, 3(>(.) 
Concrement,  205 

lime,  209 

Condemnations,  173 
Condemned    meats,    collecting    box    for, 

182 

disposal  of,  181 
room  for,  150 
utilizing  plants  for,  375 
Conditionally  passed  meat,  173 

collect  ing  box  for,  1X2 
confiscated,  utili/ing  plants 

for,  37f) 
Connective  tissue,  54 

diseases  of,  210 


Connective-tissue  mite,  343 
Conserves,  examination  of,  339 

preparation  of,  93 
Conserving  by  closing  out  of  air,  93 

of  meat,  86,  v  2 
Contagious    pleuropneumonia  of  cattle, 

313 

Cooking  of  meat,  89,  93,  173 
Cooling  rooms,  100,  374 
Corned  beef,  94 

brown,  94 

mutton,  94 

pork,  94 
Cottonseed  oil,  adulteration  of  fat  with, 

106 

test  for,  341 
Cow,  age  of,  35 

definition  of,  19 

peculiarities  of  meat  of,  74 

pox,  294 

udder  of,  blue  coloration  of,  331 
Crabs,  diseases  of,  350 

examination  of,  349 

fraudulent  substitution  for,  350 
Cracklings,  106 
Crustaceans,  examination  of,  349 

peculiarities  of  meat  of,  77 
Cryptorchid  boars,  sexual  odor  of,  195 
Culinary  preparation  of  meat,  89 
Cutting  ot  throat  for  bleeding,  41 
Cystic  formation  of  heart  valves,  221 

kidney,  218 
Cysticerci  as  cause  of  lime  concrements, 

210 

of  peritonitis,  216 
Cysticercus  cellulosse,  248 

inermis  s.  bovis,  251 

pisiformis,  242 

tenuicollis,  241,  249 
Cystodites  nodus,  343 


DAVAINEA  mutabilis,  343 
Dead  animals,  198 

born  animals,  192 
Decomposition  of  meat,  324 
Deer,  age  of,  345 

distinguishing  meat  of,  from  beef,  85 
from  sheep  and  goat,  79 

measles  of,  247,  346 

sex  of,  346 
Degenerations,  202,  203 

of  muscles,  209 
Demodex  scabies,  232,  233 
Dermatocoptes  mites,  233 
Dermatoryctes  mutans,  343 
Diamond  skin  disease,  306 
Diary  inspection  book,  162 
Differentiating   signs  of  various  meats, 

77 

Diffused   lymphadenia  of  mucous  mem- 
brane of  abomasum,  213 
Digestibility  of  meat,  90 
Digestive  apparatus,  diseases  of,  212 


384 


INDEX 


Digestive  apparatus,  lymph  glands  of,  60 

weight  of,  22 

Diphtheria  of  abornasurn,  213 
of  calves,  321 
of  fowls,  344 

Dipylidium  caninum,  238 
Diseased  meat,  influence  of  cooking  on, 

90 

of  pickling  on,  103 
of  smoking  on,  104 
Diseases  of  blood,  222 
constitutional,  222 

Disinfection  plant  for  railroad  cars,  379 
Disposal  of  condemned  meat,  169,  173, 

181 

Distemper  of  horses,  322 
Distillation,  dry,  for  destruction  of  meat, 

191 

Distomatosis,  238 
Distomum  felineum,  349 
Dog  abattoir,  383 

distinguishing   of   meat   from   pork, 

79 

as  food  animal,  19 
peculiarities  of  meat  of,  75 
Dourine,  263 
Draw-back     harness     for     transporting 

animals,  25 
Dressed  weight,  22 
Dressing  of  carcasses,  43 
Dry  distillation  for  disposal  of  meat,  191 
Drying  of  meat,  93 
Duck,  age  of,  determination  of,  342 
Dysentery,  hemorrhagic,  of  cattle,  240 


EAR  tags,  30,  31 
Eber's  test  for  putrefaction,  326 
Echinococci,  244 
Echinorhyncus  gigas,  237 
Edema,  malignant,  296,  315 
Eel  blood,  poisonous  qualities  of,  348 
Egg  concrements,  345 
Elastic  tissues,  54 
Emaciated  animals,  193 
Emaciation,  193 
Embolism,  200 
Emergency  slaughter,  44 
inspection  in,  155 
meat  poisoning  from,  352 
Emmerich's  slaughtering  method,  93 
Emphysema  of  connective  tissue,  210 

mesenteric,  215 
Empyema,  207 
Endocarditis,  221 

valvularis  verrucosa,  306 
Engine  houses,  375 
Enteritidis  bacilli  as  producers  of  sepsis, 

298 

in  pyemia,  303 
Enteritis  hsemorrhagica,  300 

mycotica  of  cattle,  317 

septica,  300 
Enzootic  hemoglobinuria,  263 


Enzymes  of  muscles,  54 
Epithelioma  contagiosum,  343 
Eruptions  of  teeth,  33 
Erysipelas  of  hogs,  304 

wound,  306 
Erythema,  306 

Examination  of  inspectors,  143 
Exhausted  animals,  197 
Extractive  bodies  in  muscles,  54 
Extraordinary  meat  inspection,  167 


FALLOW  deer,  sexual  differences  of,  346 

Farcy,  287 

Fasciola  hepatica,  238 

Fasting  calf,  192 

Fat,  50,  55 

abnormal  coloration  of,  196 

chemical  constituents  of,  57 

color  of,  55 

prepared,  106 

stones,  213 

test  for,  340,  341 

tissue,  55 

diseases  of,  213 

structure  and  consistence  of,  55 
Fattened  calves,  74 

steers,  74 
Fatty  acids,  331 

degeneration,  202 
infiltration,  202 
necrosis  of  pancreas,  217 
I  Fauna,  bromatologic,  19 
j  Fees  for  inspection,  163 
Fermentation  in  meat,  323 
Ferments  of  musculature,  53 
Fetal  meat,  192 
Filaria  equina,  242 

piscium,  349 
Fish,  diseases  of,  348 

examination  of,  347,  348 
measles,  349 

meat,  characteristics  of,  76 
deceptions  with,  348 
poisonous,  347 
ripening  process  in,  90 
poisoning  from,  347 
poisonings,  349 
pox,  349 

roe,  poisonous,  347 
Flat  worms,  237 
Flaying  disinfector,  183 
Flour,  addition  of,  to  sausage,  87 

mite,  329 
Flukes,  238 
Food  animals,  19 

abnormal    conditions    and    dis- 
eases of,  192 
age  of,  33 

anatomy  of  viscera,  68 
classification  of,  for  market  quo- 
tations, 24 
dressing  of,  43 
guarantee  for,  32 


INDEX 


385 


Food  animals,  importation  of,  28 
insurance  of,  29 
slaughtering  of,  35 
traffic  with,  21 
transportation,  25 
utilization,  46 
aspiration  of,  220 
preparations  derived  from  animals, 

105 
Foot  and  mouth  disease,  290 

rot  in  sheep,  293 
Forest  disease,  263 
Formaldehyde,  test  for,  338 
Fowl  arthritis,  345 

tuberculosis,  344 

Fraudulent  substitutions  of  meat,  77 
Freezing,  conserving  meat  by,  101 
Freibank,  164,  375 
Frog,  350 
Frontal  blow,  38 
Frozen  meat,  inspection  of,  336 


GAD  boils,  232 

fly,  232,  234 

of  sheep,  232 
Gall  sick,  360 
Game,  age  of,  determination  of,  345 

and  cattle  plague,  318 

diseases  of,  347 

peculiarities  of  meat  of,  76 

postmortem  changes  of,  347 
Gangrene,  203 

Gastro-intestinal  canal,  weight  of,  23 
Gastrophilus  equi,  236 
Gastrus  larvae,  236 
Gauls,  meat  food  of,  360 
Genito-urinary    apparatus,    diseases  of, 

216 

lymph  glands  of,   67 
Germans,  meat  food  of,  360 
Gid  of  sheep,  242 
Glanders,  287 

nodules  of,  in  lungs,  219,  288 
Glassy  degeneration,  203 
Glycerides,  57 
Glycogen  in  muscles,  54 

demonstration  of,  82 
Gnathostoma  hispidum,  237 
Goat,  distinguishing  meat  of,  from  deer, 

79 
from  mutton,  78 

as  food  animal,  20 

peculiarities  of  meat  of,  75 
Goldbeater  skins,  51 
Goose,  age  of,  determination  of,  342 

meat  from  cold  storage,  345 
Granular  atrophy  of  liver,  214 

eruptions  of  hogs,  222,  234 
Granulomata,  207 
Grape  fungus  disease,  282 

sugar  in  horse  meat,  82 
Grass-fed  cattle,  196 
Green  discoloration  of  fat,  211 
25 


Ground  meat,  86 

bacterial  contents  of,  86 

examination  of,  333 

poisonings  by,  356 
Gruel  kitchens,  379 
Guarantee  in  trading  with  food  animals, 

32 

Gut  room,  374 
Gutting,  43 


HADDOCK,  conserving  of,  93 

Hsematopines,  234 

Halisteresis  ossium,  225 

Ham,  souring  of,  324 

Hanging  arrangement  in  abattoirs,  373 

Hare,  age  of,  determination  of,  345 

distinguishing  of  meat  from  cat  meat, 

79 
Hartmann's    carcass-destroying    appara 

tus,  185 
Haut-gout,  323 
Heart,  72 

of  cattle,  74 
Heat  conduction  of  meat,  91 

stroke,  306 

Heathcock,  determining  age  of,  346 
Hemangioma  of  liver,  214 
Hematoidin,  199 

Hemoglobin,  in  hemorrhages,  199 
Hemoglobinemia  of  cattle,  261 

of  horses,  229 
Hemoglobinuria  of  cattle,  261,  318 

of  horses,  229 
Hemorrhages  of  lungs,  219 

multiple,  of  muscles,  210 

time  of  occurrence  of,  199 
Hemorrhagic  septicemia,  318 
Hemorrhodin,,  102 
Hemosiderin,  199 
Hemosporidiosis,  261 
Henneguya  zschokkei,  349 
Hepatitis,  chronic  interstitial,  214 
Hermit  tapeworm,  248 
Hide  houses,  375 

salting  establishment,  375 
History  of  meat  hygiene,  360 
in  Canada,  367 
in  United  States,  362 
Hochmuth's  destruction  apparatus,  189 
Hodgkin's  disease,  227 
Hog  bristles,  utilization  of,  51 

cholera,  309 

distinguishing  meat  from  dog  meat, 
79 

emergency  slaughter  of,  44 

as  food  animal,  20 

influence  of  feeding  on  meat  of,  75 

peculiarities  of  meat  of,  75 
Hoofs  and  claws  as  offal,  51 
Hook-frames  in  abattoirs  for  small  stock, 

374 

Horns,  development  of,  determining  age 
by,  34 


386 


INDEX 


Horns,  rings  of,  in  cows,  35 
Horse  abattoir,  373 

distinguishing  from  beef,  81 

salted  intestines  of,  from  cattle 
intestines,   159 

as  food  animal,  19 

malaria,   263 

mange,  233 

meat,  test  for,  82 

peculiarities  of  meat  of,  75 
House  fly,  329 
Hyaline  degeneration,  205 
Hydremia,  223 
Hydrometra,  218 
Hydronephrosis,  218 
Hygrometer,  101 
Hyperemia,  198 
Hyperplasia,  206 
Hypertrophy,  206 
Hypoderma  Iarva3,  232 
Hypophrenic  abscesses,  216 
Hypostasis,  200 


ICE  boxes,  98 

houses,  98 

production,  artificial,  100 
Ichthyotoxicon,  348 
Ichthyotoxism,  357 
Icterus,  228 

Imbibition,  hemorrhagic,  199 
Immature  animals,  192 
Importation  of  food  animals  and  meat, 

28 

Incising  of  lymph  glands,  148 
Incompletely  bled  animals,  197 
Indigestions  of  food  animals,  influence 

of,  on  weight,  23 
Induration,  201 
Infarct,  hemorrhagic,  199 

in  spleen,  221 
Infectious  diseases,  264 

growths,  207 

vaginal  catarrh  of  cattle,  220 
Inferior  quality  meat,  181 
Infiltrations  of  tissues,  202 
Inflammations,  200 

Inflammatory  disease  of  head  in  cattle, 
320 

processes  of  connective  tissue,  210 
Inflation  of  carcasses,  43,  210 
Influences   of  feeding  on   food   animals, 

195 

Influenza  of  horses,  322 
Injection  pickling,  101 
Ink  stamps,  170 
Insect  larvae  on  meat,  329 
Inspection  of  imported  meat,  159,  191 

office,  375 

reports,  165 

of  slaughtered  animals,  146 

disposal  of,  as  result  of,  169 
Inspector's  assistant,  144 
Insurance  of  food  animals,  29 


I  Intestinal  emphysema,  215 
Intestines,  11 

multiple  hemorrhages  of,  213 
Intoxication  in  food  animals,  227 

putrid,  303 

Invasion,  diseases  of,  231 
Iridescence  of  muscles,  208 

of  pickled  meat,  336 
Ischemia,  199 

Ixidioplasma  bigeminum,  261 
Ixodes  reduvius,  261 


JAUNDICE,  228 

malignant,  of  dogs,  263 
Jelly  sausage,  89 
Jerked  beef,  93 
Jewish  meat  laws,  360 
Johne's  disease,  269 


KETONE  in  fat,  331 
Kidneys,  72 

weight  of,  in  cattle,  74 
Killing  methods,  38 
Knocking  hammer,  40 
Kori's  burning  stove,  191 


LABORATORY  inspectors,  143 
Laminosioptes  cysticola,  343 
Land  flavor,  347 
Lard,  106 

artificial,  106 

examination  of,  340 

test  of,  340 

Large  stock,  dressing  of,  43 
as  food  animals,  19 
"Leaker"  (defective  can),  96 
Legal  means  of  redress  in  meat  inspec- 
tion, 162 

Leg-scab  of  fowl,  343 
Leucorrhea,  218 
Leukemia,  224 
Lice,  234 
Lime  concrements  from  cysticercus  tenui- 

collis,  241 
in  muscles,  209 

Live  weight  of  food  animals,  21 
Liver,  71 

fluke,  238 

migrated,  242 
mottled,  215 

necrosis  of,  multiple,  214 

telangiectasis  of,  214 

weight  of,  in  cattle,  73 
Livid  areas,  199 
Lobster  conserves,  350 

examination  of,  349 
Long  clear,  50 


INDEX 


387 


Long  fat  backs,  50 

Losses  in  meat  in  preparation  for  food,  92 

Lumbago  of  horses,  229 

Lungs,  72 

diseases  of,  221 

nodules  in,  calcareofibrous,  219,  289 

parasites  of,  235 

weight  of,  in  cattle,  74 
Lymphadenia,  diffused,  of  abomasum,  213 
Lymph  glands,  58 

incising  of,  146 

nodes,  incising  of,  146 

size,  numbers,  and  location  of, 
58 

vessels,  58 
Lyssa,  286 


M 


MACULAR     hemorrhagic     dermatitis     in 

hogs,  306 

Machines,  refrigeration,  98 
Maggots  on  meat,  329 
Mai  de  caderas,  263 
Malaria  of  cattle,  263 

of  horses,  263 
Malformations,  207 
Malignant  catarrhal  fever  of  cattle,  320 

edema,  315,  296 
Malleus,  287 
Management  of  abattoirs,  376 

of  stockyards,  380 

Manure  houses  (dung  yards),  375,  379 
Margarin  law,  106 
Market  halls  in  stockyards,  377 

quotations  for  food  animals,  24 
Marking  of  inspected  meat,  172 
foreign,  191 
of  injured  animals,  29 
Mastitis,  218 

septic,  219 

Maturity  of  calves  for  slaughter,  33 
Measles,  247 

auto-infection  with,  250 

in  fish,  349 

in  game,  247,  347 

regulations  for  judgment  of,  250,  251, 

Meat,  changes  in,  postmortem,  323 
conserving  of,  92 
constituents  of,  52 
of  crustaceans  and  mollusks,  77 
cuts,  87 

decomposition  of,  323 
disposal  of  condemned,  1 7.~i 
distinguishing  various  kinds  of,  77 
extract,  57,  105 

examination  of,  339 
fetal,  192 
of  fish,  76 
flies,  329 
flour,  American,  105 

preparation  of,  95 
of  food  animals,  19,  47,  73 
foods,  composition  of,  ,52,  53 


Meat  foods,  obtaining  of,  19 
poisoning  with,  352 
fraudulent  substitutions  of,  77 
of  game,  76 
inspection,  ambulatory,  166 

designation  of  animals  in,  20 
extraordinary,  167 
history  of,  359 
law,  137 

performance  of,  143,  169 
regulations  for,  109 
statistics  of,  163 
inspectors  (practical),  144 
Kosher,  44 
markings  of,  159 
paste,  89 

peculiarities  of,  73 
poisonings,  351 

from  bacillus  botulinus,  357 
coli,  355 
enteritidis,  351 
postmortem  changes  in,  323 
of  poultry,  76 
preparation  of,  86 
prohibition  from  importing,  28 
qualities  of,  47 
of  reptiles,  etc.,  77 
ripening  of,  53 
sausage,  87 
sterilizers,  173 

technique  of  inspection  of,  146 
turning  gray  in  cooking,  88 
Melanosarcomatosis,  205 
Melanosis,  205 
Melting  out  of  fat,  180 
Meningitis,  cerebrospinal,  222 
Mesenteric  emphysema,  215 
Metallic  poisons  in  meat,  331 
Metaplasia,  206 
Method  of  procedure  in  meat  inspection, 

151 

Metritis,  septic,  300 
Microorganisms,   action  of  pickling  on, 

104 

of  smoking  on,  104 
Microphytic  changes  of  meat,  327 
Miescher's  sacs,  259 
Milk  fever,  230 
nodes,  221 

Mohammedan  food  laws,  359 
Moles,  pigmented,  222 
Mollusks,  77 
Moniezia,  237 
Morbus  maculosus,  301 

nodulosus  of  fish,  348 
Morphology  of  tissues  and  organs,  52 
Mould  formation  on  meat,  327 
Mucin  metamorphosis,  203 
Mucoid  degeneration,  203 
Mucor,  327 
Multiple  fat  necrosis,  213 

hemorrhages  of  muscles,  210 
Murexid  reaction,  345 
Musca  domestica,  329 

vomitoria,  329 
Muscle,  actinomycosis  of,  209 


388 


INDEX 


Muscle,  coloring  matter,  retaining  of,  86 

degeneration  of,  208 

distomes  in  fish,  349 

lymph  glands  of,  59,  67 

samples    for    trichina    examination, 
163 

turning  gray  in  cooking,  88 

in  pickling,  106 
Muscular  hemorrhages,  210 
Musculature,  52 
Mussel  poisoning,  350 
Mutton,  peculiarities  of  meat  of,  75 
Mycosis  astacina,  350 
Mytilotoxism,  350 
Myxobolus,  348 
Myxosporidia,  349 
Muzzle,  prepared  as  food,  51 


NAGANA  of  cattle,  263 

Navel,  infection  of,  pyemic,  302 

septic,  300 
Neat's  foot  oil,  51 
Neck  stretcher  for  schachten,  41 
Necrophorus   bacilli  cause  of  calf  diph- 
theria, 321 

in  liver,  217 
Necrosis,  203 

of  fat,  213 
Negri  bodies,  286 
Nephritis,  219 
Nettle  fever,  306 

Neuroma  of  intercostal  nerves,  221 
Nitrate  of  potassium,  test  for,  337 
Nitric  oxyhemochromogen,  91 
Nodular  disease  of  fish,  348 
Nutritive  value  of  meat,  90 


OBLIGATIONS,  conditions  of,  32 
Ochronosis,  205 
Odor  of  meat,  74 

abnormal,  194,  331 
absorption,  195 
examination  of,  151 
(Estrus  larvae,  232,  234 

ovis,  234 
Offal,  46,  51 
Oidium  astaci,  350 
Oil,  conserving  with,  96 

sardines,  96 
Olein,  106 

Oleo  oil,  preparation  of,  107 
Oleomargarin,  106,  107 
Oligemia,  222  _ 
Omphalophlebitis,  pyemic,  302 

septic,  300 
Organs,  diseases  of,  207 

lymph  glands  of,  58 

parasites  of,  232 

used  for  preparation  of  therapeutic 
remedies,  51 


Osteomalacia,  225 

Osteomyelitis,  suppurative,  302 

Osteopsathyrosis,  225 

Ovaries,  comparative  anatomy  of,  73 

poisonous,  from  fish,  347 

utilization  of,  51 
Overheated  meat,  323 
Oversticking,  42 
Oxyuris,  237 
Oysters,  diseases  of,  350 


PALISADE  worms,  235 
Palpitating  animals  in  trading,  21 
Pancreas,  71 

necrosis  of,  215 
Pancreatic  peptone,  105 
Paprika  bacon,  93 
Paramphistomum  cervi,  240 
Parasites  of  brain,  242 

of  digestive  apparatus,  236 

of  lungs,  235 

of  pleura  and  peritoneum,  241 

of  skin,  232 
Parasitic  diseases  of  organs,  232 

infestations,  toxins  of,  238 
Paratyphoid  meat  poisonings,  351,  353, 

354,  356 

Parenchymatous  degeneration,  201 
Parturient    symptomatic    anthrax,    296, 

315 
Parturition  fever,  230 

paresis,  230 
Pasture  stock,  19 
Pearly  disease,  264 

virulence  of  meat  of,  272 
Pelvic  cavity,  lymph  glands  of,  60 
Penetration  of  meat  by  high  tempera- 
ture, 91 

Penicillium,  327 
Pentastomes,  235 
Pentastomum  denticulatum,  242 

taenoides,  235 
Pepsin  pepton,  105 
Peptic  ulcers,  213 
Peptone,  105 
Pericarditis,  221,  300,  304 

traumatic,  304 
Peritoneum,  diseases  of,  215 
Peritonitis,  218,  241,  300 
Pernicious  anemia,  223 
Petechiae  of  pleura,  220 
Petechial  fever,  301 
Pheasant,  age  of,  347 
Phlebectasis,  221 
Phosphorescence  of  meat,  327 
Phytosterin,  test  for,  341 
Pickled  meat,  examination  of,  336 
Pickling  fluid,  concentration,  101,  180 

of  meat,  101,  180 

thorough  test  for,  336 
Pigeon,  age  of,  determination  of,  342 
Pigment  formation,  205 
Pigmentation,  black,  of  fat,  211 


INDEX 


389 


Pigmentation  of  pleura,  221 

Pigmented  moles,  222 

Piroplasmosis,  261 

Pitch  mange,  222 

Pithing,  41 

Placenta,  retained,  304 

Pleuritis,  223 

septic,  300 

Pleuropneumonia,  contagious,  313 
Pneumatosis  of  mesentery,  215 
Pneumonia,  caseous,  303 
Podewil's   carcass-destroying  apparatus, 

183 

Poisoning,  226 
Poisonous  fish,  347 
Police  abattoir,  375 
Pollution  of  lungs,  220 
Polyarthritis,  pyemic,  302 

septica,  300 
Polymyositis,  208 
Pork,  75 

measles,  248 

Porschen  of  kosher  meat,  44 
Postmortem  changes  of  meat,  323 

hypostasis,  201 

spots,  201 
Poultry,  age  of,  determination  of,  342 

diseases  of,  343 

meat  of,  characteristics  of,  76 
influences  of  feeding  on,  195 

postmortem  changes  of  meat,  345 
Pox,  293 

of  chicken,  343 

of  fish,  349 
Precipitation  method  for  distinguishing 

meat,  77  _ 
Pregnancy  in  animals,  claims  on  seller, 

196 

Premier  jus,  107 
Preparation  of  meats,  87 
Prepared  meat,  examination  of,  334 
Preservative  salts,  101 
Pressure  steam  apparatus  for  diposal  of 

meat,  182 
Pricking  stamp,  31 
Private  slaughter  houses,  369 
Procedure  of  inspection,  143 
Production  of  meat,  87 
Projection  trichina  microscopes,  161 
Proteus  bacteria,  324 

in  meat  poisoning,  355 
Protozoa  of  digestive  apparatus,  240 

general  affections  due  to,  259 
Pseudoanthrax  bacilli,  285 
Pseudoaphtha,  292 
Pseudoleukemia,  225 
Pseudotrichinse,  258 
Pseudotuberculosis,  277 
Psorospermial  bodies,  261 
Pulley    harness    for    transportation    of 

animals,  25 

Purpura  haemorrhagica,  301 
Pus,  contamination  of  meat  with,  203 

forming  organisms,  204 
Putrefaction  bacteria  in  sapremia,  203 

of  meat,  324 


Putrefaction,  test  for,  326 
Putrid  intoxication,  203 
Pyelonephritis,  217 
Pyemia,  205,  301 

cause  of  meat  poisoning,  352 
Pyobacillosis,  303,  309 
Pyonephrosis,  217 
Pyometra,  218 
Pyorrhea,  205 


QUALITY  classes  of  food  animals,  21,  24 

of  meat,  47 

Quantity  of  blood  in  animals,  42 
Quarantine  abattoirs,  375 

yards,  379 


RABBIT,  age'  of,  determination  of,  345 

distinguishing  the  meat  of,  from  cat 
meat,  79 

as  food  animal,  20 

measles,  346 

meat  of,  peculiarities  of,  76 

production  of,  20 
Rabies,  286 
Rachitis,  225 
Railroad  platforms,  379 

sickness,  27 

transportation  of  food  animals,  26 
Rainey's  bodies,  259 
Ram,  odor  of  meat  of,  195 
Rancidity  of  fats,  331 
Ray  fungus  disease,  278 
Reaction  of  musculature,  53 

test  for,  149 

Red  diarrhea  of  cattle,  240 
Reddening  of  meat,  90,  106,  328 
Reductive  properties  of  musculature,  54 
Refractometer  after  Zeiss-Wollny,  340 
Refrigerating  railroad  car,  97 
Refrigeration  plant  machine,  98 
Regulations  for  meat  inspection,  109 
Reindeer  pest,  316 
Reinspection  of  meat,  160 
Rennet  ferment,  51 
Replacement  of  teeth,  33,  36 
Reptiles,  peculiarities  of  meat  of,  77 
Respiratory  apparatus,  diseases  of,  219 

lymph  glands  of,  63 
Rest  for  transported  animals,  25 
Retained  placenta,  304 
Retaining  room,  152 
Rhipicephalus,  261 
Rib  bellies,  50 
Rigor  mortis,  53 

ferment,  53 
Rinderpest,  317 
Ripening  of  meat,  53,  90,  323 
Roasting  of  meat,  91 
Roe,  poisonous  qualities  of,  347 
Romans,  meat  foods  of,  360 


390 


INDEX 


Rotation  of  spleen,  221 

Rotting  of  meat,  324 

Round  worms  of  digestive  apparatus,  236 

Rumen,  traumatic  inflammation  of,  212 


S 


SALICYLIC  acid,  test  for,  338 
Sanitary  establishment,  375 

slaughter  house,  375 
Sausage,  86 

casings,  coloring  of,  88 
dirt  in,  334 

examination  of,  333 

fat,  106 

filling,  87 

poisonings  from,  357 

turning  gray  of,  88,  334 
Salt,  conserving  of  meat  with,  101 

test  for,  336 

Salting  of  meat  for  conserving,  101 
Saltpeter,  test  for,  337 
Sample   taking   for   trichina   inspection, 

161 

Sapremia,  303 
Saprophytes,  303 

toxigenic,  358 

Sarcocystis  miesheriana,  259 
Sarcomatosis,  206 
Sarcophaga  carnavia,  329 
Sarcoptic  mange,  232,  233 
Sarcosporidiosis,  259 
Scabies  mites,  232 
Scalding  of  slaughtered  hogs,  43 
Scaly  feet  of  fowl,  343 
Scarlet  fever,  dissemination  by  meat,  328 
Schachten  of  food  animals,  41 

regulations  on,  46 
Schweinsberger  disease,  214 
Sclerostomae,  237 

Sclerotic  condition  of  fat  tissue,  211 
Sea  eel,  348 

salmon,  348 

Securing  harness  for  food  animals,  25 
Semitic  food  laws,  41,  44,  359 
Sepsis,  297 

cause  of  meat  poisonings,  352 
Septicemia  haemorrhagica,  318 
Septicopyemia,  298 
Serum  diagnosis  for  distinguishing  meat, 

77 

in  meat  poisonings,  354 
Sex,  determination  of,  153 
Sexual  organs  as  offal,  51 

peculiarities  of  meat,  194 
Shaking  disease  of  sheep,  234 
Sheep,  distinguishing  of  meat  of,  from 

deer,  79 
from  goat,  78 

as  food  animals,  20 

pox,  293 

scabies,  232 
Shooting  of  food  animals,  40 

bolt  apparatus  for,  39 
Short  clear,  50 


Short  fat  back,  50 

Signatera,  348 

Simulia  ornata,  319 

Singeing  of  hogs,  43 

Skeleton  muscles,  diseases  of,  208 

Skin,  diseases  of,  222 

of  food  animals,  51 

parasites  of,  232 
Slaughter  ax,  38 

houses,  public,  369 
in  Rome,  360 

mask,  38 

Slaughtering  of  animals,  35 
for  Jews,  44 

machine  for  hogs,  41 

methods  with  stunning,  38 
without  stunning,  41 

regulation  for,  45 
Small  stock  as  food  animals,  19 
Smoked  products,  examination  of,  339 

salmon,  107 

Smoking,  conserving  by,  104 
Snuffle  disease  of  hogs,  225 
Soiled  meat,  with  anthrax  bacilli,  285 

with  pus,  303 
Soiling  of  meat,  331 
Sooty  mange,  222 
Sour  side,  323 
Souring  of  fats,  331 

of  meat,  323 
Spinal  meningitis,   infectious   of   horses, 

230 

Spiradenitis  coccidiosa,  234 
Spleen,  71 

rotation  of,  221 

weight  of,  in  cattle,  73 
Spotted   disease   of   lobsters   and   crabs, 
350 

kidney  of  calves,  white,  216 
Spring-bolt  apparatus,  39 
Squeezing    out    passages   or   cavities   of 

slaughtered  animals,  149 
Stables  in  stockyards,  374 
Stamping  ink,  173 
Stamps  for  meat,  170 
Staphylococci    as    producers    of     sepsis, 
298 

suppuration,  301 

Starch  flour  addition  to  sausage  fillings, 
333,  335 

from  spices  in  sausage,  333 
Steam  digester,  182 
Steaming  of  meat,  91 

passed  conditionally,  173 
Steer,  definition  for,  20 
Sterilizers  for  meat,  173 
Sterilizing  of  meat  by  boiling,  93 
Sti  no  ing  fly,  329 
Stockyards,  376 
Stomach,  70 

contents,  utilization  of,  51 

worm  epizootic  of  sheep,  236 
Stomatitis  bovis,  292 
Stomoxys  calcitrans,  329 
Streptococci  as  producers  of  sepsis,  298 

suppuration,  301 


INDEX 


391 


Streptococcus  melanogenes,  230 

vaginitis  bovis,  2 IS 
Strongylides  of  intestines,  12:>(> 

of  lungs,  235,  309 
Stunning  of  food  animals,  38 

by  blow  on  base  of  head,  35) 
Sturgeon  calves,  74 
Sucking  mite,  232 
Suffocated  meat,  323 
Sulphate  of  hydrogen,  test  for,  326 
Sulphites,  test  for,  337 
Sulphurous  acid,  conserving  by,  103 

test  for,  337 

Supervision    of    antemortem    and    post- 
mortem inspection,  164 
Suppuration,  204 
Suppurative  osteomyelitis,  301 
Surra  of  cattle,  263 
Swamp  fever,  223 
Sweetbread,  50,  72 
"Sweller"  (defective  canX  96 
Swelling,  cloudy,  201 
Swine  erysipelas,  304 

fever,  309 

plague,  307 

pyemia,  303 

Symplectoptes  cysticola,  343 
Symptomatic  anthrax,  314 
parturient,  296 


saginata,  251 

solium,  248 

toxins  of,  238 
Tallow,  106 

examination  of,  339 

factories,  375 
Tapeworm  disease  of  sheep,  237 

of  man,  238,  247,  349 
Tasajo,  93 

Taste,  abnormalities  of,  in  meat,  194 
Technique  of  meat  inspection,  146 
Teeth,  determining  age  by,  33,  36 
Teleangiectasis  of  liver,  214 
Temperature,  penetration  into  meat,  91 
Tester,  339 
Tetanolysin,  295 
Tetanotoxin,  295 
Tetanus,  294 
Tetrarhyncus  larvae,  349 
Texas  fever,  262 
Therapeutic     remedies     prepared     from 

organs,  51 

Thoracic  wall,  lymph  glands  of,  66 
Thrombosis,  200 
Thymus  gland,  72 
Thyroid  glands,  comparative  anatomy  of, 

72 

utilization  of,  51 
Tick  fever  of  cattle,  263 
Ticks,  261 
Tinea  galli,  343 
Tissues,  diseases  of,  207 
Tobacco  odor  of  meat,  331 


Tongue,  70 

Toxinernia,  298 

Toxins  of  parasitic  infestations,  238 

of  putrefaction,  327 
Traffic  in  food  animals,  21 
Tragacanth  in  sausage,  333 
Transportation  by  boat,  27 

by  driving,  25 

of  food  animals,  25 

losses  in  food  animals  from,  22 

by  railroad,  26 

regulations  on,  27 

wagon  for  cattle,  26 
Transudation,  200 
Traumatic  inflammation  of  rumen,  212 

pericarditis,  223,  300 

pneumonia,  309,  313 
Trepha,  44 
Trichina,  254 

inspection,  159,  257 
association,  162 

microscopes,  163 
Trichinosis,  254 
Trichocephalus  affinis,  237 
Triebern  of  kosher  meat,  44 
Tripe,  50 

room,  374 

Tristeza  of  cattle,  263 
Trypanosomes,  263 
Tsetse-fly  disease,  263 
Tuberculosis,  264 

dissemination  of,  265 

examination  for,  270 

forms  of,  266 

of  fowls,  345 

outline  showing  forms  of  tuberculosis 
and  disposal  of  meat,  274,  276 

prevalence  of,  272 

vaccination,  influence  of,  on  meat,276 

virulence  of  meat  in,  272 
Tumors,  206 

Turpentine  odor  of  meat,  331 
Typhoid,  dissemination  of,  by  meat,  328, 

350 

Tyroglyphus  farinae,  329 
Tyrosin  deposits  in  barrelled  livers,  338 


UDDER,  73 

diseases  of,  218 
United  States  inspected  and  condemned, 

150 

and  passed,  150 
retained,  150 
suspect,  146 
Uremia,  229 

Uric  acid  deposits  in  poultry,  345 
Urinary  apparatus,  diseases  of,  216,  229 

lymph  glands  of,  67 
bladder,  72 
Urticaria,  306 
Uterus,  comparative  anatomy  of,  72 

diseases  of,  218 
Utilization  of  food  animals,  46 


392 


INDEX 


VACCINATION  pox  of  calves,  294 
Vacuoles  in  meat,  339 
Vaginal  catarrh  of  cattle,  infectious,  220 
Vaginitis,  218 
Variola,  293 
Veal,  74 

Venuleth  and  Ellenberger  meat  destruc- 
tion apparatus,  187 
Verminous  pneumonia,  309 
Vesicular  exanthema  of  horses  and  cat- 
tle, 318 
Veterinary  inspectors,   responsibility  of, 

143 

police  in  abattoirs,  376 
supervision  of  abattoirs,  376,  380 
of  meat  inspection,  164,  169 
Villous  heart,  221 
Viscera,  50 

of  cattle,    weight    of,    absolute    and 

relative,  22 

comparative  anatomy  of,  68 
lymph  glands  of,  59 


W 

WARBLES,  232 

Waste  water  clearing  plants,  375 


Water,  absorption  of  sausage  filling,  53 
addition   to   sausage   filling,   87 
supply  of  abattoirs,  375 
of  stockyards,  379 
Weight  of  viscera,  absolute  and  relative, 

22,  73 
losses    in    culinary    preparation 

of  meat,  90 
White  sausage,  89 

scour  of  calves,  322 
Wild  duck,  347 
goose,  347 

Woodcock,  age  of,  determination  of,  346 
Wooden  tongue,  279  . 
Wound  erysipelas,  306 
septic,  300 


XANTHOSIS,  207 


YELLOW  coloration  of  fat,  55 

as  result  of  feeding,  1 96 
gait,  219 

Young  cattle,  definition  for,  19 

peculiarities  of  meat  of,  74 


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